Destination Management: The Influence of Local Food

Consumers are increasingly interested in local food (Williamson and Hassanli, 2020; Ellis et al., 2018; Hjalager and Richards, 2002). Research shows that for some tourists, food represents a ‘pull’ factor and a reason to choose a specific destination (Su et al., 2018). Tourists may be drawn to a region to sample a Michelin starred restaurant, such as Noma in Denmark. Additionally, tourists may be attracted to a destination based on regional specialities, for example, tapas in Seville or pintxos in San Sebastian. In contrast, foods such as paella in Valencia or pizza in Naples may be perceived as an essential part of the holiday experience but may not entice tourists to choose a certain destination (Bjork and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016). In a similar manner, tourists who have a casual interest in food may value local food at a destination as a traditional and authentic part of the culture and heritage (Hjalager, 2003; Sims, 2009). However, few studies have investigated the influence of attitudes to local food as an antecedent in destination choice. Consequently, the following hypothesis is presented:

H1: Tourist attitudes to local food positively influence destination choice.

‘Push factors’ are features that influence an individual to travel (Dann, 1977). Several studies have established that local food can be a ‘push’ factor which can motivate individuals to travel for a number of reasons. Firstly, the sensory experience of local food can be a primary motivation for travelling (Su et al., 2018; Boniface, 2003; Kim & Eves, 2012). Secondly, local food can represent an interpersonal motivator as meals taken on a holiday have a social function enabling the building of new social relations and the strengthening of social bonds (Crompton, 1979; Fields, 2002). Thirdly, local food provides a cultural experience, providing an individual with the opportunity to learn about different countries and traditions (Kim and Eves, 2012) and a chance to engage in authentic experiences. Fourthly, local food can appeal to those looking for an exciting and different experience (Kim and Eves, 2012), to escape a daily routine. Finally, tourism and gastronomy are often regarded as hedonic products (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), for which fun, pleasure, or enjoyment is a primary benefit. Hence, the ‘pleasure’ factor can be an inherent motivating factor in food tourism.

Additionally, on examining the various definitions for food tourism it was found that the majority consider food as a primary motivating factor to travel (Boniface, 2003; Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1981; Hall and Sharples, 2003). For example, Smith and Costello (2009, p. 49) define food as being a ‘principal resource’, which encourages ‘individuals to travel and visit a destination specifically for the unique food products. Similarly, Su (2013, p. 574) claim that tourists can be ‘partly or largely’ motivated by the food experience. From this perspective, food can also be positioned as an important secondary motivation. As such, Su (2013) contends that food represents one motivating factor to travel, but it is not necessarily the primary reason. If local food can act as a ‘pull factor’ enticing tourists, then it could be argued that interest in local food could be an antecedent, thus influencing travel motivation. Accordingly, the following hypothesis was formed:

H2: Tourist attitudes to local food positively influence motivation to travel.

Satisfaction is considered the outcome of a subjective evaluation of whether something meets or exceeds the needs of the individual (Oliver, 1980). It is argued that local food and local food experiences are an important source of enjoyment during a holiday (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), having a positive effect on overall holiday satisfaction (Sánchez-Cañizares and López-Guzmán, 2012; Henderson, 2009). However, tourist satisfaction is a multifaceted concept and influenced by various attributes including; perceived value, the destination environment and the tourist themselves (Andersson and Mossberg, 2017; Mak et al., 2012; Kauppinen-Räisänen et al. 2013). In addition, local food experiences can also determine tourist satisfaction (Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014). Furthermore, local food experiences can add to the holistic or overall holiday experience (Bjork and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2017).

Prior research has also demonstrated that customer satisfaction significantly influences future behavioural intentions (Oliver and Burke, 1999) such as revisit intention and positive word-of-mouth. Therefore, positive local food experiences may influence revisit intention and may encourage positive word of mouth (Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016; Sánchez-Cañizares and López-Guzmán, 2012). On the other hand, negative experiences with local food may cause the opposite behaviour.

Moreover, studies suggest that attitudes towards local food can be predictors and determinants of customers’ satisfaction (Bell and Marshall, 2003; Cohen and Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2010; Björk and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2017). Consequently, it is hypothesised that:

H3: Tourist attitudes to local food positively influence holiday satisfaction.

A wide range of attempts have been made to define the concept of authenticity. As a result, ‘there are at least as many definitions of authenticity as there are those who write about it’ (Taylor, 2001, p. 8). However common themes emerge with words such as original, real, genuine, true and honest often used (Özdemir and Seyitoğlu, 2017). Authenticity is recognised as an important aspect of the food tourism experience (Ellis et al., 2018) with local food recognised as part of the culture, heritage and traditions of a place (Sims, 2009).

In food tourism, authenticity has been studied from two perspectives; object-related and existential. Object-related authenticity refers to whether something can be conveyed and interpreted as authentic or not (Wang, 1999, cited in Sims, 2009). It is based on the genuineness of objects and is verified by an expert. While existential authenticity is where the tourist forms an understanding of authenticity based on their beliefs, expectations or previous experiences (Sims, 2009). It is argued that object-related and existential based authenticity can significantly influence tourist attitudes and the intention to purchase local food (Sidali and Hemmerling, 2014). Therefore, it can be argued that a high level of perceived authenticity is likely to lead to a more positive attitude and a higher level of purchase intention among tourists. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H4: Tourist attitudes to local food positively influence the perception of (a) object-related (b) existential authenticity.

Research suggests that the quest for authenticity can act as an underlying driver in tourist destination choice (Beer, 2008; Richards, 2012), travel motivation (Mak et al., 2017; McKercher et al., 2008) and satisfaction (Cetin and Bilgihan, 2015). Furthermore, tourists’ increasing demand for local food can be linked to the search for authenticity (Sims, 2009). Yet there is a lack of research seeking to understand the effects of authenticity on the relationships between tourist attitudes to local food and destination choice, motivation to travel and satisfaction. This research will, therefore, seek to understand if authenticity has an influence on these relationships. As authenticity is measured from two perspectives, object-related and existential, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H5.1: Object-related authenticity mediates the relationship between tourist attitudes to local food and (a) destination choice, (b) motivation to travel and (c) satisfaction.

H5.2: Existential authenticity mediates the relationship between (a) destination choice, (b) motivation to travel and (c) satisfaction.

A summary of the themes in the literature presented leading to the development of the hypotheses is presented in Table 1.

This research concerns food tourists, and as such certain criteria needed to be met by each respondent to be eligible for inclusion in the study. Therefore, a non-probability sampling strategy was employed. This led the researcher to adopt a purposive criterion sampling technique (Patton, 2001). Consequently, the following inclusion criteria were used to identify eligible respondents:

All respondents must have had an interest in food and food experiences

By employing these criteria, it ensured that the respondents had an acceptable interest in travel, food and food experiences to answer the questionnaire. Furthermore, a similar sampling strategy was employed in previous food tourism studies (for example, Boesen et al., 2017; Everett, 2012; Mak et al., 2017).

A sample size >300 was required to conduct Structural Equation Model (SEM), (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), therefore two methods of data were employed; face-to-face and online. For face-to-face data collection, the researcher approached respondents at two food festivals on the 7^th and 8^th September 2018 and the 26^th and 28^th October 2018. These data collection points were deemed suitable by the arguments that people who visit these events can be defined as food tourists, as defined by the UNTWO, and will have varying demographic profiles.

Secondly, the survey was circulated online with potential respondents identified through an online search of food interest groups. Additionally, the email asked the recipient to share the link to the survey with other members of their respective groups. The initial email invite was sent out to 425 recipients on the 12^th November 2018 with a follow-up reminder sent on 18^th November 2018. The online survey was active for two weeks from the 12^th – 26^th November 2018. The final response rate was 368; face-to-face data collection n = 101 while online n = 253.

The data was analysed using both SPSS and SPSS Amos (version 24) software. To measure the multi-dimensional latent variables in the questionnaire, a Structural Equation Model (SEM) was used in this study.

Data screening procedures were performed to ensure usability, validity and reliability prior to testing the hypotheses as presented in Table 2. As such checks were made for missing data and both multivariate and univariate outliers. Additionally, data was tested to ensure it achieved suitable levels of Skewness and Kurtosis. Finally, data were screened for issues of multicollinearity, homoscedasticity, linearity.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to detect discriminant validity issues, whereby the constructs in the framework were refined into a usable set of ‘coherent subscales’ (Pallant, 2011, p. 179). A successful EFA requires several thresholds to be achieved. Firstly, the appropriateness of the data is assessed using the KMO (0 .914 = Good). Secondly, Bartlett's Test of Sphericity (Sig. < 0.000 = Good) ensures that the variables included in the analysis sufficiently relate to one another to confirm a meaningful EFA. Next, the pattern matrix produced by the EFA is assessed for convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity assesses the degree to which variables within a single factor are correlated (Hair et al., 2013). Hair et al. (2013) suggests that with a sample size >250 a factor loading of 0.4 is significant. As the sample size in this research was 368 all variables with factor loadings above 0.4 were deemed significant. Discriminant validity assesses the degree to which factors are distinct and uncorrelated. To satisfy discriminant validity correlations between factors should not exceed 0.7 and cross-loadings should differ by > 0.2. Both convergent and discriminant validity were achieved in the analysis. Subsequently, the reliability of the framework measures was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which explored the internal consistency of the scales. All values were more than 0.7 and therefore reliability was assured (Hair et al., 2013).

The next step in scale development was to perform a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

The primary function of CFA is to confirm the factor structure of the framework from the EFA, checking if the measurement model has goodness of fit (Gaskin, 2010). Firstly, factor loadings, composite reliability and average variance extracted were used to measure convergence validity (Hair et al., 2013). Each of these tests was conducted using the Stats Tools Package for Microsoft Excel, as developed by Gaskin (2012). The results of the analysis are displayed in Table 2.

From the results, the measurement model has composite reliability (CR) as evidenced by all values > 0.6. Furthermore, it has convergent validity as evidenced by the AVE results > 0.5 which is in line with Barclay et al. (1995) who recommend achieving a score of greater than 0.50. Additionally, the measurement model has discriminant validity as the MSV value is less than the AVE. Moreover, the square root of the AVE, of all factors is greater than any the inter-factor correlations, as shown in bold on the diagonal of the matrix in Table 2. Therefore, all six constructs the framework; 1) attitude to local food, 2) destination choice, 3) motivation to travel, 4) satisfaction 5) object-related authenticity 6) existential authenticity, are valid measures of their corresponding concepts based on their reliability, validity and statistical significance.

The next stage of the analysis involved generating a full structural equation model (SEM) using Maximum Likelihood estimation for the sample, as shown in Figure 2. The model fit indicators were RMSEA = 0.06 (acceptable), SRMR = 0.003 (Excellent), CFI = .955 (excellent) and CMIN/DF= 2.324 (excellent). These results support a good model fit (Lowry and Gaskin 2014).

Figure 2

The results for the framework support the direct effects of H1, H3, H4 (a) and H4 (b). It did not support H2, as presented in Table 3. Additionally, the mediated effects of H5.1 (b), H5.2 (a), H5.2 (b) and H5.2 (c) were supported. H5.1 (a) and H5.1 (b) were rejected, as reported in Table 4.

The purpose of the first research objective was to establish if tourist attitudes to local food influence destination choice, motivation to travel, satisfaction and perceived authenticity. Overall this study found four key points related to the first research question.

Firstly, attitudes to local food are a determining factor in destination choice (β=0.136; p< 0.001). This significant ‘attitudes to local food – destination choice’ relationship reasons that local food functions as a destination trigger. As such tourists may choose a particular destination due to the local food it serves and for the anticipated food experiences it provides. As such local food can no longer be viewed as a supporting resource. Rather local food is a destination attraction. Hence, it could be determined that local food and various local food-related experiences are critical factors in enticing tourists to visit a destination (Bjork and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2017; Su et al., 2018).

Secondly, tourist attitudes to local food do not influence travel motivation (β=−0.89, p<0.100). This finding is contrary to previous studies which have suggested that positive attitudes towards local food can influence travel motivation (Bjork and Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014, 2016, 2017; Hjalager and Richards, 2002; Mak, et al., 2017). Motivation is recognised as a multi-faceted construct consisting of physiological and complex psychological factors and behaviours (Mak, et al., 2012). Travel motivations surface when a tourist wants to satisfy a need or want which cannot be met at home. Therefore, it can be assumed that individuals travel for different reasons, often based on a combination of motives (Su et al., 2018).

Thirdly, it was found that tourist attitudes to local food influence overall holiday satisfaction (β= 0.320; p<0.001). This significant ‘attitudes to local food – satisfaction’ relationship shows that for tourists with a positive interest in local food, their local food experiences are an important contributor to overall holiday satisfaction. As already mentioned, satisfaction is based on an evaluation which meets or exceeds a preconceived expectation (Oliver, 1980). Therefore, it could be argued that local food must meet the expectations of the tourist to guarantee a satisfactory holiday experience. Equally, it can be inferred that bad local food experiences have the potential to induce levels of holiday dissatisfaction. This indicates that local food has the capacity to provide tourists with some of the highest and lowest points of their overall holiday experience. Based on these findings, local food may be a critical factor in tourism, representing a threat and an opportunity for destinations. Research has demonstrated that customer satisfaction significantly influences future tourist behaviour such as revisit intention and positive word-of-mouth (Oliver and Burke, 1999). Therefore, it could be argued that positive local food experiences can influence revisit intention and could encourage positive word of mouth (Sánchez-Cañizares and López-Guzmán, 2012). On the other hand, negative experiences with local food may cause the opposite behaviour.

Fourthly, it was found that tourists with an interest in local food recognise it as an object-related authentic experience (β= 0.542; p<0.001). The finding from this research question implies that tourists with a positive interest in local food, see the tangible significance in local food and understand how it relates to a place and its people. Additionally, tourists with an interest in local food recognise it as an existential authentic experience (β= 0.629; p<0.001). The tourist takes an active role in the experience. The findings suggest that tourists interested in local food see the significance of local food and understand how it can relate to a specific place and its culture. Therefore, by consuming local food, tourists ‘are also consuming the meaning behind it’ (Sims, 2009, p. 333). In this sense, if eating food on holiday is turned into a tourist activity, rather than merely being regarded as an object, the food constitutes a form of existential authenticity. Understanding, what tourists perceive or evaluate as authentic can enhance the tourist experience and as such, must be considered when developing destination marketing strategies. As such the authenticity of the local food must be interpreted not only through the food product but also in an appealing way, where the tourist can become actively involved in the local food experience.

The second objective aimed to examine if authenticity influences the relationships between tourist attitudes to local food and destination choice, motivation to travel and satisfaction. In this study authenticity was investigated from two perspectives; object-related and existential.

Existential authenticity

The influence of existential authenticity on the relationships between attitudes to local food and destination choice, motivation to travel and satisfaction found three key points. Firstly, it was determined that the relationship between attitudes to local food and destination choice was influenced by existential authenticity (β= 0.618; p<0.001). This result suggests that tourists with a high interest in local food are influenced to choose a destination because of the availability of existential authentic experiences. As such these tourists are selecting destinations based on the cultural or activity-related aspects that local food offers.

Secondly, existential authenticity had a substantial influence on the relationship between attitudes to local food and motivation to travel (β= 0.817; p<0.001). Statistically, this result was greater than the overall effect of object-related authenticity on this relationship. Therefore, it can be concluded that existential authenticity has more influence on the relationship between attitudes to local food and motivation to travel, than object-related authenticity. Consequently, tourists interested in local food are motivated to travel to learn about and participate in food experiences.

Thirdly, it was found that existential authenticity had a sizable effect on the relationship between attitudes to local food and satisfaction (β= 0.386; p<0.001). Therefore, tourists with an interest in local food are not just enjoying the taste of the food, but rather they find pleasure in consuming the meaning around it. In addition, it can be intuitively assumed that if tourists are satisfied with their holiday experience, they may be willing to return to destinations and recommend them to others.

In summary, existential authenticity has an influence on the relationships between attitudes to local food, destination choice, motivation to travel and satisfaction. Whereas, object-related authenticity had only a marginal effect on the relationship between tourist attitudes to local food and motivation to travel. As such, existential authenticity has a crucial role to play in travel behaviour.

A revised conceptual framework based on the results of the investigation into the two research objectives is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3

The first theoretical contribution of this study is to provide an explanation specific to the influence of tourist attitudes to local food and on travel behaviour. Therefore, this research adds to the existing body of knowledge within food tourism by suggesting that attitudes to local food are an antecedent which influence travel behaviour.

Secondly, this study also contributes by examining the effect of object-related and existential authenticity on the relationships between tourist attitudes to local food and travel behaviour. Additionally, by examining the meditating effects of object-related and an existential authenticity on the relationships between tourist attitudes to local food and destination choice, motivation to travel and satisfaction, the research further confirms recent studies showing the influential role of authenticity in tourism behaviour.

Thirdly, the development of a framework examining the role of tourist attitudes to local food and travel behaviour. The framework also acknowledges the mediating effects of both object-related and existential authenticity. The conceptual framework has been refined based on the results of the investigation, see figure 3. This framework now offers a more solid foundation for subsequent research.

From a practical perspective, this paper contributes to a better understanding of the role of local food from a tourist's perspective as a means of destination development. As such the findings show destination marketers, policymakers, local food producers that tourists are inherently interested in local food. As such, the results of this study stress that tourists have an interest in local food and are seeking food experiences linked to locality. This can be achieved by highlighting local food producers, cafes and restaurants in promotional material, social media and websites. Consequently, promoting local food can also generate additional benefits for a region through complementary activities, such as local farming, shops and food production (Sims, 2009).

For destinations marketers, the results also highlight the importance of promoting authentic local food experiences for tourists. The results of this study show that tourists want to actively take part and learn about the culture and heritage of a place through local food. This can be achieved by emphasising the story of the food and its traditions. Local food could be linked with activities available at the destination and used to enhance the experiential aspect of the dining experience. Tourism offerings need to be developed to appeal to the existential authenticity that tourist's desire.

The research findings are currently restricted to the Irish context in which this study was undertaken. That said, food tourism has been studied under a wide array of national settings and, thus, is by no means applicable to merely an Irish context. Therefore, it may be the case that some, if not all, of the research findings, are internationally transferable. To verify this claim, it is recommended that future research of a similar nature should be undertaken in various geographical settings.

Additionally, it is suggested that a qualitative approach could be taken to further investigate the research objectives. Engagement in the research suggested here would ultimately lead to an enhanced understanding of how attitudes to local food can influence travel behaviour.

Moreover, it may help to strengthen the evidence of this study's external reliability, by demonstrating the potential replicability of its results (Bryman, 2008).