The role of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the prevention of cognitive impairment in the elderly

[1] Abubakari A.R., Naderali M.M., Naderali E.K.: Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and cognitive function: Are smaller dosages more beneficial? Int. J. Gen. Med., 2014; 7: 463–473 AbubakariA.R. NaderaliM.M. NaderaliE.K. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and cognitive function: Are smaller dosages more beneficial? Int. J. Gen. Med. 2014 7 463 473 10.2147/IJGM.S67065417975325278774 Search in Google Scholar

[2] AbuMweis S., Jew S., Tayyem R., Agraib L.: Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid containing supplements modulate risk factors for cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis of randomised placebo-control human clinical trials. J. Hum. Nutr. Diet., 2018; 31: 67–84 AbuMweisS. JewS. TayyemR. AgraibL. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid containing supplements modulate risk factors for cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis of randomised placebo-control human clinical trials J. Hum. Nutr. Diet. 2018 31 67 84 10.1111/jhn.1249328675488 Search in Google Scholar

[3] Aizawa K., Ageyama N., Yokoyama C., Hisatsune T.: Age-dependent alteration in hippocampal neurogenesis correlates with learning performance of macaque monkeys. Exp. Anim., 2009; 58: 403–407 AizawaK. AgeyamaN. YokoyamaC. HisatsuneT. Age-dependent alteration in hippocampal neurogenesis correlates with learning performance of macaque monkeys Exp. Anim. 2009 58 403 407 10.1538/expanim.58.40319654438 Search in Google Scholar

[4] Albanese E., Dangour A.D., Uauy R., Acosta D., Guerra M., Guerra S.S., Huang Y., Jacob K.S., de Rodriguez J.L., Noriega L.H., Salas A., Sosa A.L., Sousa R.M., Williams J., Ferri C.P., Prince M.J.: Dietary fish and meat intake and dementia in Latin America, China, and India: A 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2009; 90: 392–400 AlbaneseE. DangourA.D. UauyR. AcostaD. GuerraM. GuerraS.S. HuangY. JacobK.S. de RodriguezJ.L. NoriegaL.H. SalasA. SosaA.L. SousaR.M. WilliamsJ. FerriC.P. PrinceM.J. Dietary fish and meat intake and dementia in Latin America, China, and India: A 10/66 Dementia Research Group population-based study Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009 90 392 400 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27580300867219553298 Search in Google Scholar

[5] Alexander D.D., Miller P.E., Van Elswyk M.E., Kuratko C.N., Bylsma L.C.: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort studies of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk. Mayo Clin. Proc., 2017; 92: 15–29 AlexanderD.D. MillerP.E. Van ElswykM.E. KuratkoC.N. BylsmaL.C. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort studies of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease risk Mayo Clin. Proc. 2017 92 15 29 10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.10.01828062061 Search in Google Scholar

[6] Ammann E.M., Pottala J.V., Robinson J.G., Espeland M.A., Harris W.S.: Erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acids are inversely associated with incident dementia: Secondary analyses of longitudinal data from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS). Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 2017; 121: 68–75 AmmannE.M. PottalaJ.V. RobinsonJ.G. EspelandM.A. HarrisW.S. Erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acids are inversely associated with incident dementia: Secondary analyses of longitudinal data from the Women’s Health Initiative Memory Study (WHIMS) Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2017 121 68 75 10.1016/j.plefa.2017.06.006556420928651700 Search in Google Scholar

[7] Ansari Z.: Homocysteine and mild cognitive impairment: Are these the tools for early intervention in the dementia spectrum? J. Nutr. Health Aging, 2016; 20: 155–160 AnsariZ. Homocysteine and mild cognitive impairment: Are these the tools for early intervention in the dementia spectrum? J. Nutr. Health Aging 2016 20 155 160 10.1007/s12603-015-0576-y26812511 Search in Google Scholar

[8] Balachandar R., Soundararajan S., Bagepally B.S.: Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in age-related cognitive decline: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 2020; 76: 639–648 BalachandarR. SoundararajanS. BagepallyB.S. Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in age-related cognitive decline: A systematic review and meta-analysis Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2020 76 639 648 10.1007/s00228-020-02843-x32060571 Search in Google Scholar

[9] Bannenberg G., Serhan C.N.: Specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators in the inflammatory response: An update. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2010; 1801: 1260–1273 BannenbergG. SerhanC.N. Specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators in the inflammatory response: An update Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2010 1801 1260 1273 10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.08.002299424520708099 Search in Google Scholar

[10] Bayat P.D., Ghanbari A., Moradi M., Raoofi A.: The effects of age and sex on brain volume. Int. J. Morphol., 2014; 32: 1477–1483 BayatP.D. GhanbariA. MoradiM. RaoofiA. The effects of age and sex on brain volume Int. J. Morphol. 2014 32 1477 1483 10.4067/S0717-95022014000400056 Search in Google Scholar

[11] Bazan N.G., Molina M.F., Gordon W.C.: Docosahexaenoic acid signalolipidomics in nutrition: Significance in aging, neuroinflammation, macular degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and other neurodegenerative diseases. Annu. Rev. Nutr., 2011; 31: 321–351 BazanN.G. MolinaM.F. GordonW.C. Docosahexaenoic acid signalolipidomics in nutrition: Significance in aging, neuroinflammation, macular degeneration, Alzheimer’s, and other neurodegenerative diseases Annu. Rev. Nutr. 2011 31 321 351 10.1146/annurev.nutr.012809.104635340693221756134 Search in Google Scholar

[12] Bendlin B.B., Fitzgerald M.E., Ries M.L., Xu G., Kastman E.K., Thiel B.W., Rowley H.A., Lazar M., Alexander A.L., Johnson S.C.: White matter in aging and cognition: A cross-sectional study of microstructure in adults aged eighteen to eighty-three. Dev. Neuropsychol., 2010; 35: 257–277 BendlinB.B. FitzgeraldM.E. RiesM.L. XuG. KastmanE.K. ThielB.W. RowleyH.A. LazarM. AlexanderA.L. JohnsonS.C. White matter in aging and cognition: A cross-sectional study of microstructure in adults aged eighteen to eighty-three Dev. Neuropsychol. 2010 35 257 277 10.1080/87565641003696775289598820446132 Search in Google Scholar

[13] Bennett I.J., Madden D.J.: Disconnected aging: Cerebral white matter integrity and age-related differences in cognition. Neuroscience, 2014; 276: 187–205 BennettI.J. MaddenD.J. Disconnected aging: Cerebral white matter integrity and age-related differences in cognition Neuroscience 2014 276 187 205 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.11.026403238024280637 Search in Google Scholar

[14] Bettcher B.M., Kramer J.H.: Inflammation and clinical presentation in neurodegenerative disease: A volatile relationship. Neurocase, 2013; 19: 182–200 BettcherB.M. KramerJ.H. Inflammation and clinical presentation in neurodegenerative disease: A volatile relationship Neurocase 2013 19 182 200 10.1080/13554794.2011.654227373337722515699 Search in Google Scholar

[15] Beydoun M.A., Kaufman J.S., Satia J.A., Rosamond W., Folsom A.R.: Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2007; 85: 1103–1111 BeydounM.A. KaufmanJ.S. SatiaJ.A. RosamondW. FolsomA.R. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007 85 1103 1111 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.110317413112 Search in Google Scholar

[16] Biagi E., Nylund L., Candela M., Ostan R., Bucci L., Pini E., Nikkïla J., Monti D., Satokari R., Franceschi C., Brigidi P., De Vos W.: Through ageing, and beyond: Gut microbiota and inflammatory status in seniors and centenarians. PLoS One, 2010; 5: e10667 BiagiE. NylundL. CandelaM. OstanR. BucciL. PiniE. NikkïlaJ. MontiD. SatokariR. FranceschiC. BrigidiP. De VosW. Through ageing, and beyond: Gut microbiota and inflammatory status in seniors and centenarians PLoS One 2010 5 e10667 10.1371/journal.pone.0010667287178620498852 Search in Google Scholar

[17] Boneva N.B., Yamashima T.: New insights into “GPR40-CREB interaction in adult neurogenesis” specific for primates. Hippocampus, 2012; 22: 896–905 BonevaN.B. YamashimaT. New insights into “GPR40-CREB interaction in adult neurogenesis” specific for primates Hippocampus 2012 22 896 905 10.1002/hipo.2095121594949 Search in Google Scholar

[18] Cai L., Chan J.S., Yan J.H., Peng K.: Brain plasticity and motor practice in cognitive aging. Front. Aging. Neurosci., 2014; 6: 31 CaiL. ChanJ.S. YanJ.H. PengK. Brain plasticity and motor practice in cognitive aging Front. Aging. Neurosci. 2014 6 31 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00031394799324653695 Search in Google Scholar

[19] Calder P.C.: n-3 fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: new mechanisms to explain old actions. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 2013; 72: 326–336 CalderP.C. n-3 fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: new mechanisms to explain old actions Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2013 72 326 336 10.1017/S002966511300103123668691 Search in Google Scholar

[20] Calder P.C.: Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: From molecules to man. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 2017; 45: 1105–1115 CalderP.C. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: From molecules to man Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2017 45 1105 1115 10.1042/BST2016047428900017 Search in Google Scholar

[21] Cannon J.A., Moffitt P., Perez-Moreno A.C., Walters M.R., Broomfield N.M., McMurray J.J., Quinn T.J.: Cognitive impairment and heart failure: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Card. Fail., 2017; 23: 464–475 CannonJ.A. MoffittP. Perez-MorenoA.C. WaltersM.R. BroomfieldN.M. McMurrayJ.J. QuinnT.J. Cognitive impairment and heart failure: Systematic review and meta-analysis J. Card. Fail. 2017 23 464 475 10.1016/j.cardfail.2017.04.00728433667 Search in Google Scholar

[22] Cao D., Kevala K., Kim J., Moon H.S., Jun S.B., Lovinger D., Kim H.Y.: Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function. J. Neurochem., 2009; 111: 510–521 CaoD. KevalaK. KimJ. MoonH.S. JunS.B. LovingerD. KimH.Y. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function J. Neurochem. 2009 111 510 521 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06335.x277344419682204 Search in Google Scholar

[23] Cherubini A., Andres-Lacueva C., Martin A., Lauretani F., Iorio A.D., Bartali B., Corsi A., Bandinelli S., Mattson M.P., Ferrucci L.: Low plasma N-3 fatty acids and dementia in older persons: The InCHIANTI study. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., 2007; 62: 1120–1126 CherubiniA. Andres-LacuevaC. MartinA. LauretaniF. IorioA.D. BartaliB. CorsiA. BandinelliS. MattsonM.P. FerrucciL. Low plasma N-3 fatty acids and dementia in older persons: The InCHIANTI study J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2007 62 1120 1126 10.1093/gerona/62.10.1120264609317921425 Search in Google Scholar

[24] Chhetri J.K., de Souto Barreto P., Soriano G., Gennero I., Cantet C., Vellas B.: Vitamin D, homocysteine and n-3PUFA status according to physical and cognitive functions in older adults with subjective memory complaint: Results from cross-sectional study of the MAPT trial. Exp. Gerontol., 2018; 111: 71–77 ChhetriJ.K. de Souto BarretoP. SorianoG. GenneroI. CantetC. VellasB. Vitamin D, homocysteine and n-3PUFA status according to physical and cognitive functions in older adults with subjective memory complaint: Results from cross-sectional study of the MAPT trial Exp. Gerontol. 2018 111 71 77 10.1016/j.exger.2018.07.00630006297 Search in Google Scholar

[25] Chin A.V., Robinson D.J., O’Connell H., Hamilton F., Bruce I., Coen R., Walsh B., Coakley D., Molloy A., Scott J., Lawlor B.A., Cunningham C.J.: Vascular biomarkers of cognitive performance in a community-based elderly population: The Dublin Healthy Ageing study. Age Ageing, 2008; 37: 559–564 ChinA.V. RobinsonD.J. O’ConnellH. HamiltonF. BruceI. CoenR. WalshB. CoakleyD. MolloyA. ScottJ. LawlorB.A. CunninghamC.J. Vascular biomarkers of cognitive performance in a community-based elderly population: The Dublin Healthy Ageing study Age Ageing 2008 37 559 564 10.1093/ageing/afn14418667454 Search in Google Scholar

[26] Chouinard-Watkins R., Rioux-Perreault C., Fortier M., Tremblay-Mercier J., Zhang Y., Lawrence P., Vohl M.C., Perron P., Lorrain D., Brenna J.T., Cunnane S.C., Plourde M.: Disturbance in uniformly 13C-labelled DHA metabolism in elderly human subjects carrying the apoE ε4 allele. Br. J. Nutr., 2013; 110: 1751–1759 Chouinard-WatkinsR. Rioux-PerreaultC. FortierM. Tremblay-MercierJ. ZhangY. LawrenceP. VohlM.C. PerronP. LorrainD. BrennaJ.T. CunnaneS.C. PlourdeM. Disturbance in uniformly 13C-labelled DHA metabolism in elderly human subjects carrying the apoE ε4 allele Br. J. Nutr. 2013 110 1751 1759 10.1017/S000711451300126823631810 Search in Google Scholar

[27] Ciappolino V., Mazzocchi A., Botturi A., Turolo S., Delvecchio G., Agostoni C., Brambilla P.: The role of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on cognitive functions in psychiatric disorders. Nutrients, 2019; 11: 769 CiappolinoV. MazzocchiA. BotturiA. TuroloS. DelvecchioG. AgostoniC. BrambillaP. The role of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on cognitive functions in psychiatric disorders Nutrients 2019 11 769 10.3390/nu11040769652099630986970 Search in Google Scholar

[28] Cipollina C., Salvatore S.R., Muldoon M.F., Freeman B.A., Schopfer F.J.: Generation and dietary modulation of anti-inflammatory electrophilic omega-3 fatty acid derivatives. PLoS One, 2014; 9: e94836 CipollinaC. SalvatoreS.R. MuldoonM.F. FreemanB.A. SchopferF.J. Generation and dietary modulation of anti-inflammatory electrophilic omega-3 fatty acid derivatives PLoS One 2014 9 e94836 10.1371/journal.pone.0094836398812624736647 Search in Google Scholar

[29] Colin J., Gregory-Pauron L., Lanhers M.C., Claudepierre T., Corbier C., Yen F.T., Malaplate-Armand C., Oster T.: Membrane raft domains and remodeling in aging brain. Biochimie, 2016; 130: 178–187 ColinJ. Gregory-PauronL. LanhersM.C. ClaudepierreT. CorbierC. YenF.T. Malaplate-ArmandC. OsterT. Membrane raft domains and remodeling in aging brain Biochimie 2016 130 178 187 10.1016/j.biochi.2016.08.01427594339 Search in Google Scholar

[30] Conklin S.M., Gianaros P.J., Brown S.M., Yao J.K., Hariri A.R., Manuck S.B., Muldoon M.F.: Long-chain omega-3 fatty acid intake is associated positively with corticolimbic gray matter volume in healthy adults. Neurosci. Lett., 2007; 421: 209–212 ConklinS.M. GianarosP.J. BrownS.M. YaoJ.K. HaririA.R. ManuckS.B. MuldoonM.F. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acid intake is associated positively with corticolimbic gray matter volume in healthy adults Neurosci. Lett. 2007 421 209 212 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.08617574755 Search in Google Scholar

[31] Cunnane S.C., Schneider J.A., Tangney C., Tremblay-Mercier J., Fortier M., Bennett D.A., Morris M.C.: Plasma and brain fatty acid profiles in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. J. Alzheimers Dis., 2012; 29: 691–697 CunnaneS.C. SchneiderJ.A. TangneyC. Tremblay-MercierJ. FortierM. BennettD.A. MorrisM.C. Plasma and brain fatty acid profiles in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease J. Alzheimers Dis. 2012 29 691 697 10.3233/JAD-2012-110629340958022466064 Search in Google Scholar

[32] Daiello L.A., Gongvatana A., Dunsiger S., Cohen R.A., Ott B.R., Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative: Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function. Alzheimers Dement., 2015; 11: 226–235 DaielloL.A. GongvatanaA. DunsigerS. CohenR.A. OttB.R. Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Association of fish oil supplement use with preservation of brain volume and cognitive function Alzheimers Dement. 2015 11 226 235 10.1016/j.jalz.2014.02.005482943524954371 Search in Google Scholar

[33] Dangour A.D., Allen E., Elbourne D., Fletcher A., Richards M., Uauy R.: Fish consumption and cognitive function among older people in the UK: Baseline data from the OPAL study. J. Nutr. Health Aging, 2009; 13: 198–202 DangourA.D. AllenE. ElbourneD. FletcherA. RichardsM. UauyR. Fish consumption and cognitive function among older people in the UK: Baseline data from the OPAL study J. Nutr. Health Aging 2009 13 198 202 10.1007/s12603-009-0057-219262951 Search in Google Scholar

[34] de Oliveira Otto M.C., Wu J.H., Thacker E.L., Lai H., Lemaitre R.N., McKnight B., Padhye N., Song X., King I.B., Lopez O., Siscovick D., Mozaffarian D.: Longitudinal associations of omega-6 and omega-3 plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids with dementia in older adults: The cardiovascular health study. Circulation, 2019; 139: A046 de Oliveira OttoM.C. WuJ.H. ThackerE.L. LaiH. LemaitreR.N. McKnightB. PadhyeN. SongX. KingI.B. LopezO. SiscovickD. MozaffarianD. Longitudinal associations of omega-6 and omega-3 plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acids with dementia in older adults: The cardiovascular health study Circulation 2019 139 A046 10.1161/circ.139.suppl_1.046 Search in Google Scholar

[35] Dullemeijer C., Durga J., Brouwer I.A., van de Rest O., Kok F.J., Brummer R.J., van Boxtel M.P., Verhoef P.: n3 fatty acid proportions in plasma and cognitive performance in older adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2007; 86: 1479–1485 DullemeijerC. DurgaJ. BrouwerI.A. van de RestO. KokF.J. BrummerR.J. van BoxtelM.P. VerhoefP. n3 fatty acid proportions in plasma and cognitive performance in older adults Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007 86 1479 1485 10.1093/ajcn/86.5.147917991662 Search in Google Scholar

[36] Dyall S.C., Michael G.J., Michael-Titus A.T.: Omega-3 fatty acids reverse age-related decreases in nuclear receptors and increase neurogenesis in old rats. J. Neurosci. Res., 2010; 88: 2091–2102 DyallS.C. MichaelG.J. Michael-TitusA.T. Omega-3 fatty acids reverse age-related decreases in nuclear receptors and increase neurogenesis in old rats J. Neurosci. Res. 2010 88 2091 2102 10.1002/jnr.2239020336774 Search in Google Scholar

[37] Ehninger D., Kempermann G.: Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. Cell Tissue Res., 2008; 331: 243–250 EhningerD. KempermannG. Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus Cell Tissue Res. 2008 331 243 250 10.1007/s00441-007-0478-317938969 Search in Google Scholar

[38] Fairbairn P., Tsofliou F., Johnson A., Dyall S.C.: Effects of a high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement and exercise on mobility and cognition in older women (MOBILE): A randomised semi-blinded placebo-controlled study. Br. J. Nutr., 2020; 124: 146–155 FairbairnP. TsofliouF. JohnsonA. DyallS.C. Effects of a high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement and exercise on mobility and cognition in older women (MOBILE): A randomised semi-blinded placebo-controlled study Br. J. Nutr. 2020 124 146 155 10.1017/S000711452000071932100647 Search in Google Scholar

[39] Faraco G., Brea D., Garcia-Bonilla L., Wang G., Racchumi G., Chang H., Buendia I., Santisteban M.M., Segarra S.G., Koizumi K., Sugiyama Y., Murphy M., Voss H., Anrather J., Iadecola C.: Dietary salt promotes neurovascular and cognitive dysfunction through a gut-initiated TH17 response. Nat. Neurosci., 2018; 21: 240–249 FaracoG. BreaD. Garcia-BonillaL. WangG. RacchumiG. ChangH. BuendiaI. SantistebanM.M. SegarraS.G. KoizumiK. SugiyamaY. MurphyM. VossH. AnratherJ. IadecolaC. Dietary salt promotes neurovascular and cognitive dysfunction through a gut-initiated TH17 response Nat. Neurosci. 2018 21 240 249 10.1038/s41593-017-0059-z620737629335605 Search in Google Scholar

[40] Fleischman D.A., Leurgans S., Arfanakis K., Arvanitakis Z., Barnes L.L., Boyle P.A., Han S.D., Bennett D.A.: Gray-matter macrostructure in cognitively healthy older persons: Associations with age and cognition. Brain Struct. Funct., 2014; 219: 2029–2049 FleischmanD.A. LeurgansS. ArfanakisK. ArvanitakisZ. BarnesL.L. BoyleP.A. HanS.D. BennettD.A. Gray-matter macrostructure in cognitively healthy older persons: Associations with age and cognition Brain Struct. Funct. 2014 219 2029 2049 10.1007/s00429-013-0622-7392691423955313 Search in Google Scholar

[41] Fonteh A.N., Cipolla M., Chiang A.J., Edminster S.P., Arakaki X., Harrington M.G.: Polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of cerebrospinal fluid fractions shows their contribution to cognitive resilience of a pre-symptomatic Alzheimer’s disease cohort. Front. Physiol., 2020; 11: 83 FontehA.N. CipollaM. ChiangA.J. EdminsterS.P. ArakakiX. HarringtonM.G. Polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of cerebrospinal fluid fractions shows their contribution to cognitive resilience of a pre-symptomatic Alzheimer’s disease cohort Front. Physiol. 2020 11 83 10.3389/fphys.2020.00083703424332116789 Search in Google Scholar

[42] Goh J.O.: Functional dedifferentiation and altered connectivity in older adults: Neural accounts of cognitive aging. Aging Dis., 2011; 2: 30–48 GohJ.O. Functional dedifferentiation and altered connectivity in older adults: Neural accounts of cognitive aging Aging Dis. 2011 2 30 48 Search in Google Scholar

[43] Gorelick P.B.: Role of inflammation in cognitive impairment: Results of observational epidemiological studies and clinical trials. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2010; 1207: 155–162 GorelickP.B. Role of inflammation in cognitive impairment: Results of observational epidemiological studies and clinical trials Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2010 1207 155 162 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05726.x20955439 Search in Google Scholar

[44] Grande G., Qiu C., Fratiglioni L.: Prevention of dementia in an ageing world: Evidence and biological rationale. Ageing Res. Rev., 2020; 64: 101045 GrandeG. QiuC. FratiglioniL. Prevention of dementia in an ageing world: Evidence and biological rationale Ageing Res. Rev. 2020 64 101045 10.1016/j.arr.2020.10104532171784 Search in Google Scholar

[45] Green K.N., Martinez-Coria H., Khashwji H., Hall E.B., Yurko-Mauro K.A., Ellis L., LaFerla F.M.: Dietary docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid ameliorate amyloid-β and tau pathology via a mechanism involving presenilin 1 levels. J. Neurosci., 2007; 27: 4385–4395 GreenK.N. Martinez-CoriaH. KhashwjiH. HallE.B. Yurko-MauroK.A. EllisL. LaFerlaF.M. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid ameliorate amyloid-β and tau pathology via a mechanism involving presenilin 1 levels J. Neurosci. 2007 27 4385 4395 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0055-07.2007667230217442823 Search in Google Scholar

[46] Grimm M.O., Kuchenbecker J., Grösgen S., Burg V.K., Hundsdörfer B., Rothhaar T.L., Friess P., de Wilde M.C., Broersen L.M., Penke B., Péter M., Vígh L., Grimm H.S., Hartmann T.: Docosahexaenoic acid reduces amyloid β production via multiple pleiotropic mechanisms. J. Biol. Chem., 2011; 286: 14028–14039 GrimmM.O. KuchenbeckerJ. GrösgenS. BurgV.K. HundsdörferB. RothhaarT.L. FriessP. de WildeM.C. BroersenL.M. PenkeB. PéterM. VíghL. GrimmH.S. HartmannT. Docosahexaenoic acid reduces amyloid β production via multiple pleiotropic mechanisms J. Biol. Chem. 2011 286 14028 14039 10.1074/jbc.M110.182329307760321324907 Search in Google Scholar

[47] Groeger A.L., Cipollina C., Cole M.P., Woodcock S.R., Bonacci G., Rudolph T.K., Rudolph V., Freeman B.A., Schopfer F.J.: Cyclooxygenase-2 generates anti-inflammatory mediators from omega-3 fatty acids. Nat. Chem. Biol., 2010; 6: 433–441 GroegerA.L. CipollinaC. ColeM.P. WoodcockS.R. BonacciG. RudolphT.K. RudolphV. FreemanB.A. SchopferF.J. Cyclooxygenase-2 generates anti-inflammatory mediators from omega-3 fatty acids Nat. Chem. Biol. 2010 6 433 441 10.1038/nchembio.367307771220436486 Search in Google Scholar

[48] Gu Y., Schupf N., Cosentino S.A., Luchsinger J.A., Scarmeas N.: Nutrient intake and plasma β-amyloid. Neurology, 2012; 78: 1832–1840 GuY. SchupfN. CosentinoS.A. LuchsingerJ.A. ScarmeasN. Nutrient intake and plasma β-amyloid Neurology 2012 78 1832 1840 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318258f7c2336951722551728 Search in Google Scholar

[49] Hafkemeijer A., Altmann-Schneider I., de Craen A.J., Slagboom P.E., van der Grond J., Rombouts S.A.: Associations between age and gray matter volume in anatomical brain networks in middle-aged to older adults. Aging Cell, 2014; 13: 1068–1074 HafkemeijerA. Altmann-SchneiderI. de CraenA.J. SlagboomP.E. van der GrondJ. RomboutsS.A. Associations between age and gray matter volume in anatomical brain networks in middle-aged to older adults Aging Cell 2014 13 1068 1074 10.1111/acel.12271432691825257192 Search in Google Scholar

[50] Haller S., Montandon M.L., Rodriguez C., Garibotto V., Lilja J., Herrmann F.R., Giannakopoulos P.: Amyloid load, hippocampal volume loss, and diffusion tensor imaging changes in early phases of brain aging. Front. Neurosci., 2019; 13: 1228 HallerS. MontandonM.L. RodriguezC. GaribottoV. LiljaJ. HerrmannF.R. GiannakopoulosP. Amyloid load, hippocampal volume loss, and diffusion tensor imaging changes in early phases of brain aging Front. Neurosci. 2019 13 1228 10.3389/fnins.2019.01228687297531803008 Search in Google Scholar

[51] Harrison S.L., de Craen A.J., Kerse N., Teh R., Granic A., Davies K., Wesnes K.A., den Elzen W.P., Gussekloo J., Kirkwood T.B., Robinson L., Jagger C., Siervo M., Stephan B.C.: Predicting risk of cognitive decline in very old adults using three models: The Framingham Stroke risk profile; the cardiovascular risk factors, aging, and dementia model; and oxi-inflammatory biomarkers. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 2017; 65: 381–389 HarrisonS.L. de CraenA.J. KerseN. TehR. GranicA. DaviesK. WesnesK.A. den ElzenW.P. GusseklooJ. KirkwoodT.B. RobinsonL. JaggerC. SiervoM. StephanB.C. Predicting risk of cognitive decline in very old adults using three models: The Framingham Stroke risk profile; the cardiovascular risk factors, aging, and dementia model; and oxi-inflammatory biomarkers J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2017 65 381 389 10.1111/jgs.1453227861706 Search in Google Scholar

[52] Harrison S.L., Ding J., Tang E.Y., Siervo M., Robinson L., Jagger C., Stephan B.C.: Cardiovascular disease risk models and longitudinal changes in cognition: A systematic review. PLoS One, 2014; 9: e114431 HarrisonS.L. DingJ. TangE.Y. SiervoM. RobinsonL. JaggerC. StephanB.C. Cardiovascular disease risk models and longitudinal changes in cognition: A systematic review PLoS One 2014 9 e114431 10.1371/journal.pone.0114431425768625478916 Search in Google Scholar

[53] He C., Qu X., Cui L., Wang J., Kang J.X.: Improved spatial learning performance of fat-1 mice is associated with enhanced neurogenesis and neuritogenesis by docosahexaenoic acid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2009; 106: 11370–11375 HeC. QuX. CuiL. WangJ. KangJ.X. Improved spatial learning performance of fat-1 mice is associated with enhanced neurogenesis and neuritogenesis by docosahexaenoic acid Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009 106 11370 11375 10.1073/pnas.0904835106270876619549874 Search in Google Scholar

[54] Hinterberger M., Fischer P.: Folate and Alzheimer: When time matters. J. Neural. Transm., 2013; 120: 211–224 HinterbergerM. FischerP. Folate and Alzheimer: When time matters J. Neural. Transm. 2013 120 211 224 10.1007/s00702-012-0822-y22627695 Search in Google Scholar

[55] Hjorth E., Zhu M., Toro V.C., Vedin I., Palmblad J., Cederholm T., Freund-Levi Y., Faxen-Irving G., Wahlund L.O., Basun H., Eriksdotter M., Schultzberg M.: Omega-3 fatty acids enhance phagocytosis of Alzheimer’s disease-related amyloid-β42 by human microglia and decrease inflammatory markers. J. Alzheimers Dis., 2013; 35: 697–713 HjorthE. ZhuM. ToroV.C. VedinI. PalmbladJ. CederholmT. Freund-LeviY. Faxen-IrvingG. WahlundL.O. BasunH. EriksdotterM. SchultzbergM. Omega-3 fatty acids enhance phagocytosis of Alzheimer’s disease-related amyloid-β42 by human microglia and decrease inflammatory markers J. Alzheimers Dis. 2013 35 697 713 10.3233/JAD-13013123481688 Search in Google Scholar

[56] Holtzman D.M., Morris J.C., Goate A.M.: Alzheimer’s disease: The challenge of the second century. Sci. Transl. Med., 2011; 3: 77sr1 HoltzmanD.M. MorrisJ.C. GoateA.M. Alzheimer’s disease: The challenge of the second century Sci. Transl. Med. 2011 3 77sr1 10.1126/scitranslmed.3002369313054621471435 Search in Google Scholar

[57] Hooijmans C.R., Pasker-de Jong P.C., de Vries R.B., Ritskes-Hoitinga M.: The effects of long-term omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition and Alzheimer’s pathology in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Alzheimers Dis., 2012; 28: 191–209 HooijmansC.R. Pasker-de JongP.C. de VriesR.B. Ritskes-HoitingaM. The effects of long-term omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition and Alzheimer’s pathology in animal models of Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis J. Alzheimers Dis. 2012 28 191 209 10.3233/JAD-2011-11121722002791 Search in Google Scholar

[58] Howe P.R., Evans H.M., Kuszewski J.C., Wong R.H.: Effects of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain function in mildly hypertensive older adults. Nutrients, 2018; 10: 1413 HoweP.R. EvansH.M. KuszewskiJ.C. WongR.H. Effects of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain function in mildly hypertensive older adults Nutrients 2018 10 1413 10.3390/nu10101413621324630279397 Search in Google Scholar

[59] Huang T., Wahlqvist M.L., Li D.: Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on gene expression of the critical enzymes involved in homocysteine metabolism. Nutr. J., 2012; 11: 6 HuangT. WahlqvistM.L. LiD. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on gene expression of the critical enzymes involved in homocysteine metabolism Nutr. J. 2012 11 6 10.1186/1475-2891-11-6329292022260268 Search in Google Scholar

[60] Huang T., Zheng J., Chen Y., Yang B., Wahlqvist M.L., Li D.: High consumption of Ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease plasma homocysteine: A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Nutrition, 2011; 27: 863–867 HuangT. ZhengJ. ChenY. YangB. WahlqvistM.L. LiD. High consumption of Ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decrease plasma homocysteine: A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials Nutrition 2011 27 863 867 10.1016/j.nut.2010.12.01121501950 Search in Google Scholar

[61] Jiao J., Li Q., Chu J., Zeng W., Yang M., Zhu S.: Effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function throughout the life span from infancy to old age: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2014; 100: 1422–1436 JiaoJ. LiQ. ChuJ. ZengW. YangM. ZhuS. Effect of n-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function throughout the life span from infancy to old age: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014 100 1422 1436 10.3945/ajcn.114.09531525411277 Search in Google Scholar

[62] Kawakita E., Hashimoto M., Shido O.: Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Neuroscience, 2006; 139: 991–997 KawakitaE. HashimotoM. ShidoO. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo Neuroscience 2006 139 991 997 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.01.02116527422 Search in Google Scholar

[63] Kempermann G., Gage F.H., Aigner L., Song H., Curtis M.A., Thuret S., Kuhn H.G., Jessberger S., Frankland P.W., Cameron H.A., Gould E., Hen R., Abrous D.N., Toni N., Schinder A.F. i wsp.: Human adult neurogenesis: Evidence and remaining questions. Cell Stem Cell, 2018; 23: 25–30 KempermannG. GageF.H. AignerL. SongH. CurtisM.A. ThuretS. KuhnH.G. JessbergerS. FranklandP.W. CameronH.A. GouldE. HenR. AbrousD.N. ToniN. SchinderA.F. i wsp. Human adult neurogenesis: Evidence and remaining questions Cell Stem Cell 2018 23 25 30 10.1016/j.stem.2018.04.004603508129681514 Search in Google Scholar

[64] Kim H.L., Kim D.K., Kang S.W., Park Y.K.: Association of nutrient intakes with cognitive function in Koreans aged 50 years and older. Clin. Nutr. Res., 2018; 7: 199–212 KimH.L. KimD.K. KangS.W. ParkY.K. Association of nutrient intakes with cognitive function in Koreans aged 50 years and older Clin. Nutr. Res. 2018 7 199 212 10.7762/cnr.2018.7.3.199607317230079318 Search in Google Scholar

[65] Kim J., Park M.H., Kim E., Han C., Jo S.A., Jo I.: Plasma homocysteine is associated with the risk of mild cognitive impairment in an elderly Korean population. J. Nutr., 2007; 137: 2093–2097 KimJ. ParkM.H. KimE. HanC. JoS.A. JoI. Plasma homocysteine is associated with the risk of mild cognitive impairment in an elderly Korean population J. Nutr. 2007 137 2093 2097 10.1093/jn/137.9.209317709448 Search in Google Scholar

[66] Klempin F., Kempermann G.: Adult hippocampal neurogenesis and aging. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 2007; 257: 271–280 KlempinF. KempermannG. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis and aging Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2007 257 271 280 10.1007/s00406-007-0731-517401726 Search in Google Scholar

[67] Kolan M.: Zaburzenia funkcji poznawczych a choroby niedokrwienne mózgu. W: Neurokognitywistyka w patologii i zdrowiu 2009–2011, red.: I. Kojder. Wydawnictwo Pomorskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego, Szczecin 2011, 94–105 KolanM. Zaburzenia funkcji poznawczych a choroby niedokrwienne mózgu W: Neurokognitywistyka w patologii i zdrowiu 2009–2011 red.: KojderI. Wydawnictwo Pomorskiego Uniwersytetu Medycznego Szczecin 2011 94 105 Search in Google Scholar

[68] Kotwal S., Jun M., Sullivan D., Perkovic V., Neal B.: Omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes, 2012; 5: 808–818 KotwalS. JunM. SullivanD. PerkovicV. NealB. Omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2012 5 808 818 10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.112.96616823110790 Search in Google Scholar

[69] Kröger E., Verreault R., Carmichael P.H., Lindsay J., Julien P., Dewailly E., Ayotte P., Laurin D.: Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: The Canadian study of health and aging. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2009; 90: 184–192 KrögerE. VerreaultR. CarmichaelP.H. LindsayJ. JulienP. DewaillyE. AyotteP. LaurinD. Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: The Canadian study of health and aging Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009 90 184 192 10.3945/ajcn.2008.2698719474137 Search in Google Scholar

[70] Kume A., Kurotani K., Sato M., Ejima Y., Pham N.M., Nanri A., Kuwahara K., Mizoue T.: Polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum and homocysteine concentrations in Japanese men and women: A cross-sectional study. Nutr. Metab., 2013; 10: 41 KumeA. KurotaniK. SatoM. EjimaY. PhamN.M. NanriA. KuwaharaK. MizoueT. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum and homocysteine concentrations in Japanese men and women: A cross-sectional study Nutr. Metab. 2013 10 41 10.1186/1743-7075-10-41368158523758810 Search in Google Scholar

[71] Ledesma M.D., Martin M.G., Dotti C.G.: Lipid changes in the aged brain: Effect on synaptic function and neuronal survival. Prog. Lipid. Res., 2012; 51: 23–35 LedesmaM.D. MartinM.G. DottiC.G. Lipid changes in the aged brain: Effect on synaptic function and neuronal survival Prog. Lipid. Res. 2012 51 23 35 10.1016/j.plipres.2011.11.00422142854 Search in Google Scholar

[72] Lopez L.B., Kritz-Silverstein D., Barrett Connor E.: High dietary and plasma levels of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid are associated with decreased dementia risk: The Rancho Bernardo study. J. Nutr. Health Aging, 2011; 15: 25–31 LopezL.B. Kritz-SilversteinD. Barrett ConnorE. High dietary and plasma levels of the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid are associated with decreased dementia risk: The Rancho Bernardo study J. Nutr. Health Aging 2011 15 25 31 10.1007/s12603-011-0009-521267518 Search in Google Scholar

[73] Lord S.R., Delbaere K., Sturnieks D.L.: Chapter 10 – Aging. W: Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Volume 159, red.: B.L. Day, S.R. Lord. Elsevier, 2018, 157–171 LordS.R. DelbaereK. SturnieksD.L. Chapter 10 – Aging W: Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Volume 159 red.: DayB.L. LordS.R. Elsevier 2018 157 171 Search in Google Scholar

[74] Lu Z.H., Li J., Li X.L., Ding M., Mao C.J., Zhu X.Y., Liu C.F.: Hypertension with hyperhomocysteinemia increases the risk of early cognitive impairment after first-ever ischemic stroke. Eur. Neurol., 2019; 82: 75–85 LuZ.H. LiJ. LiX.L. DingM. MaoC.J. ZhuX.Y. LiuC.F. Hypertension with hyperhomocysteinemia increases the risk of early cognitive impairment after first-ever ischemic stroke Eur. Neurol. 2019 82 75 85 10.1159/00050470431825940 Search in Google Scholar

[75] Ma F., Zhou X., Li Q., Zhao J., Song A., An P., Du Y., Xu W., Huang G.: Effects of folic acid and vitamin B12, alone and in combination on cognitive function and inflammatory factors in the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A single-blind experimental design. Curr. Alzheimer Res., 2019; 16: 622–632 MaF. ZhouX. LiQ. ZhaoJ. SongA. AnP. DuY. XuW. HuangG. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B12, alone and in combination on cognitive function and inflammatory factors in the elderly with mild cognitive impairment: A single-blind experimental design Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2019 16 622 632 10.2174/156720501666619072514462931345146 Search in Google Scholar

[76] Manders M., Vasse E., de Groot L.C., van Staveren W.A., Bindels J.G., Blom H.J., Hoefnagels W.H.: Homocysteine and cognitive function in institutionalised elderly A cross-sectional analysis. Eur. J. Nutr., 2006; 45: 70–78 MandersM. VasseE. de GrootL.C. van StaverenW.A. BindelsJ.G. BlomH.J. HoefnagelsW.H. Homocysteine and cognitive function in institutionalised elderly A cross-sectional analysis Eur. J. Nutr. 2006 45 70 78 10.1007/s00394-005-0566-716052295 Search in Google Scholar

[77] Marciniak-Łukasik K.: Rola i znaczenie kwasów tłuszczowych omega-3. Żywn. Nauka Technol. Jakość, 2011; 18: 24–35 Marciniak-ŁukasikK. Rola i znaczenie kwasów tłuszczowych omega-3 Żywn. Nauka Technol. Jakość 2011 18 24 35 Search in Google Scholar

[78] McNamara R.K., Kalt W., Shidler M.D., McDonald J., Summer S.S., Stein A.L., Stover A.N., Krikorian R.: Cognitive response to fish oil, blueberry, and combined supplementation in older adults with subjective cognitive impairment. Neurobiol. Aging, 2018; 64: 147–156 McNamaraR.K. KaltW. ShidlerM.D. McDonaldJ. SummerS.S. SteinA.L. StoverA.N. KrikorianR. Cognitive response to fish oil, blueberry, and combined supplementation in older adults with subjective cognitive impairment Neurobiol. Aging 2018 64 147 156 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.12.003582274829458842 Search in Google Scholar

[79] Middleton L.E., Yaffe K.: Promising strategies for the prevention of dementia. Arch. Neurol., 2009; 66: 1210–1215 MiddletonL.E. YaffeK. Promising strategies for the prevention of dementia Arch. Neurol. 2009 66 1210 1215 10.1001/archneurol.2009.201276211119822776 Search in Google Scholar

[80] Mora F., Segovia G., del Arco A.: Aging, plasticity and environmental enrichment: Structural changes and neurotransmitter dynamics in several areas of the brain. Brain Res. Rev., 2007; 55: 78–88 MoraF. SegoviaG. del ArcoA. Aging, plasticity and environmental enrichment: Structural changes and neurotransmitter dynamics in several areas of the brain Brain Res. Rev. 2007 55 78 88 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.03.01117561265 Search in Google Scholar

[81] Noble J.M., Manly J.J., Schupf N., Tang M.X., Mayeux R., Luchsinger J.A.: Association of C-reactive protein with cognitive impairment. Arch. Neurol., 2010; 67: 87–92 NobleJ.M. ManlyJ.J. SchupfN. TangM.X. MayeuxR. LuchsingerJ.A. Association of C-reactive protein with cognitive impairment Arch. Neurol. 2010 67 87 92 10.1001/archneurol.2009.308442690520065134 Search in Google Scholar

[82] Nyberg L., Lövdén M., Riklund K., Lindenberger U., Bäckman L.: Memory aging and brain maintenance. Trends Cogn. Sci., 2012; 16: 292–305 NybergL. LövdénM. RiklundK. LindenbergerU. BäckmanL. Memory aging and brain maintenance Trends Cogn. Sci. 2012 16 292 305 10.1016/j.tics.2012.04.00522542563 Search in Google Scholar

[83] Otsuka R., Tange C., Nishita Y., Kato Y., Imai T., Ando F., Shimokata H.: Serum docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid and risk of cognitive decline over 10 years among elderly Japanese. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 2014; 68: 503–509 OtsukaR. TangeC. NishitaY. KatoY. ImaiT. AndoF. ShimokataH. Serum docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid and risk of cognitive decline over 10 years among elderly Japanese Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2014 68 503 509 10.1038/ejcn.2013.264397581024398640 Search in Google Scholar

[84] Park D.C., Reuter-Lorenz P.: The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 2009; 60: 173–196 ParkD.C. Reuter-LorenzP. The adaptive brain: Aging and neurocognitive scaffolding Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2009 60 173 196 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656335912919035823 Search in Google Scholar

[85] Peng H.Y., Man C.F., Xu J., Fan Y.: Elevated homocysteine levels and risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B, 2015; 16: 78–86 PengH.Y. ManC.F. XuJ. FanY. Elevated homocysteine levels and risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: A meta-analysis of prospective studies J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. B 2015 16 78 86 10.1631/jzus.B1400183428894825559959 Search in Google Scholar

[86] Pobrotyn P., Susło R., Witczak I.T., Rypicz L., Drobnik J.: An analysis of the costs of treating aged patients in a large clinical hospital in Poland under the pressure of recent demographic trends. Arch. Med. Sci., 2020; 16: 666–671 PobrotynP. SusłoR. WitczakI.T. RypiczL. DrobnikJ. An analysis of the costs of treating aged patients in a large clinical hospital in Poland under the pressure of recent demographic trends Arch. Med. Sci. 2020 16 666 671 10.5114/aoms.2018.81132721223232399116 Search in Google Scholar

[87] Qin B., Plassman B.L., Edwards L.J., Popkin B.M., Adair L.S., Mendez M.A.: Fish intake is associated with slower cognitive decline in Chinese older adults. J. Nutr., 2014; 144: 1579–1585 QinB. PlassmanB.L. EdwardsL.J. PopkinB.M. AdairL.S. MendezM.A. Fish intake is associated with slower cognitive decline in Chinese older adults J. Nutr. 2014 144 1579 1585 10.3945/jn.114.193854416247725080536 Search in Google Scholar

[88] Raji C.A., Erickson K.I., Lopez O.L., Kuller L.H., Gach H.M., Thompson P.M., Riverol M., Becker J.T.: Regular fish consumption and age-related brain gray matter loss. Am. J. Prev. Med., 2014; 47: 444–451 RajiC.A. EricksonK.I. LopezO.L. KullerL.H. GachH.M. ThompsonP.M. RiverolM. BeckerJ.T. Regular fish consumption and age-related brain gray matter loss Am. J. Prev. Med. 2014 47 444 451 10.1016/j.amepre.2014.05.037417134525084680 Search in Google Scholar

[89] Rao J.S., Ertley R.N., Lee H.J., DeMar J.C. Jr., Arnold J.T., Rapoport S.I., Bazinet R.P.: n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation in rats decreases frontal cortex BDNF via a p38 MAPK-dependent mechanism. Mol. Psychiatry, 2007; 12: 36–46 RaoJ.S. ErtleyR.N. LeeH.J. DeMarJ.C.Jr. ArnoldJ.T. RapoportS.I. BazinetR.P. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deprivation in rats decreases frontal cortex BDNF via a p38 MAPK-dependent mechanism Mol. Psychiatry 2007 12 36 46 10.1038/sj.mp.400188816983391 Search in Google Scholar

[90] Reitz C., Tang M.X., Miller J., Green R., Luchsinger J.A.: Plasma homocysteine and risk of mild cognitive impairment. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord., 2009; 27: 11–17 ReitzC. TangM.X. MillerJ. GreenR. LuchsingerJ.A. Plasma homocysteine and risk of mild cognitive impairment Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2009 27 11 17 10.1159/000182421269846219088473 Search in Google Scholar

[91] Roberts R.O., Geda Y.E., Knopman D.S., Boeve B.F., Christianson T.J., Pankratz V.S., Kullo I.J., Tangalos E.G., Ivnik R.J., Petersen R.C.: Association of C-reactive protein with mild cognitive impairment. Alzheimers Dement., 2009; 5: 398–405 RobertsR.O. GedaY.E. KnopmanD.S. BoeveB.F. ChristiansonT.J. PankratzV.S. KulloI.J. TangalosE.G. IvnikR.J. PetersenR.C. Association of C-reactive protein with mild cognitive impairment Alzheimers Dement. 2009 5 398 405 10.1016/j.jalz.2009.01.025285117019751919 Search in Google Scholar

[92] Robson L.G., Dyall S., Sidloff D., Michael-Titus A.T.: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increase the neurite outgrowth of rat sensory neurones throughout development and in aged animals. Neurobiol. Aging, 2010; 31: 678–687 RobsonL.G. DyallS. SidloffD. Michael-TitusA.T. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increase the neurite outgrowth of rat sensory neurones throughout development and in aged animals Neurobiol. Aging 2010 31 678 687 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.05.02718620782 Search in Google Scholar

[93] Sachdev P.S., Blacker D., Blazer D.G., Ganguli M., Jeste D.V., Paulsen J.S., Petersen R.C.: Classifying neurocognitive disorders: The DSM-5 approach. Nat. Rev. Neurol., 2014; 10: 634–642 SachdevP.S. BlackerD. BlazerD.G. GanguliM. JesteD.V. PaulsenJ.S. PetersenR.C. Classifying neurocognitive disorders: The DSM-5 approach Nat. Rev. Neurol. 2014 10 634 642 10.1038/nrneurol.2014.18125266297 Search in Google Scholar

[94] Samieri C., Lorrain S., Buaud B., Vaysse C., Berr C., Peuchant E., Cunnane S.C., Barberger-Gateau P.: Relationship between diet and plasma long-chain n-3 PUFAs in older people: Impact of apolipoprotein E genotype. J. Lipid. Res., 2013; 54: 2559–2567 SamieriC. LorrainS. BuaudB. VaysseC. BerrC. PeuchantE. CunnaneS.C. Barberger-GateauP. Relationship between diet and plasma long-chain n-3 PUFAs in older people: Impact of apolipoprotein E genotype J. Lipid. Res. 2013 54 2559 2567 10.1194/jlr.P036475373595223801662 Search in Google Scholar

[95] Santangeli P., Di Biase L., Bai R., Mohanty S., Pump A., Cereceda Brantes M., Horton R., Burkhardt J.D., Lakkireddy D., Reddy Y.M., Casella M., Dello Russo A., Tondo C., Natale A.: Atrial fibrillation and the risk of incident dementia: A meta-analysis. Heart Rhythm, 2012; 9: 1761–1768 SantangeliP. Di BiaseL. BaiR. MohantyS. PumpA. Cereceda BrantesM. HortonR. BurkhardtJ.D. LakkireddyD. ReddyY.M. CasellaM. Dello RussoA. TondoC. NataleA. Atrial fibrillation and the risk of incident dementia: A meta-analysis Heart Rhythm 2012 9 1761 1768 10.1016/j.hrthm.2012.07.02622863685 Search in Google Scholar

[96] Schaefer E.J., Bongard V., Beiser A.S., Lamon-Fava S., Robins S.J., Au R., Tucker K.L., Kyle D.J., Wilson P.W., Wolf P.A.: Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: The Framing-ham Heart Study. Arch. Neurol., 2006; 63: 1545–1550 SchaeferE.J. BongardV. BeiserA.S. Lamon-FavaS. RobinsS.J. AuR. TuckerK.L. KyleD.J. WilsonP.W. WolfP.A. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: The Framing-ham Heart Study Arch. Neurol. 2006 63 1545 1550 10.1001/archneur.63.11.154517101822 Search in Google Scholar

[97] Serhan C.N., Dalli J., Colas R.A., Winkler J.W., Chiang N.: Protectins and maresins: New pro-resolving families of mediators in acute inflammation and resolution bioactive metabolome. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2015; 1851: 397–413 SerhanC.N. DalliJ. ColasR.A. WinklerJ.W. ChiangN. Protectins and maresins: New pro-resolving families of mediators in acute inflammation and resolution bioactive metabolome Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2015 1851 397 413 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006432401325139562 Search in Google Scholar

[98] Serini S., Bizzarro A., Piccioni E., Fasano E., Rossi C., Lauria A., Cittadini A.R., Masullo C., Calviello G.: EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer’s patients. Curr. Alzheimer Res., 2012; 9: 913–923 SeriniS. BizzarroA. PiccioniE. FasanoE. RossiC. LauriaA. CittadiniA.R. MasulloC. CalvielloG. EPA and DHA differentially affect in vitro inflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from Alzheimer’s patients Curr. Alzheimer Res. 2012 9 913 923 10.2174/15672051280325114722299617 Search in Google Scholar

[99] Stephan B.C.M., Harrison S.L., Keage H.A.D., Babateen A., Robinson L., Siervo M.: Cardiovascular disease, the nitric oxide pathway and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia. Curr. Cardiol. Rep., 2017; 19: 87 StephanB.C.M. HarrisonS.L. KeageH.A.D. BabateenA. RobinsonL. SiervoM. Cardiovascular disease, the nitric oxide pathway and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 2017 19 87 10.1007/s11886-017-0898-y555428628801790 Search in Google Scholar

[100] Stillwell W., Shaikh S.R., Zerouga M., Siddiqui R., Wassall S.R.: Docosahexaenoic acid affects cell signaling by altering lipid rafts. Reprod. Nutr. Dev., 2005; 45: 559–579 StillwellW. ShaikhS.R. ZerougaM. SiddiquiR. WassallS.R. Docosahexaenoic acid affects cell signaling by altering lipid rafts Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 2005 45 559 579 10.1051/rnd:2005046 Search in Google Scholar

[101] Sun G.Y., Simonyi A., Fritsche K.L., Chuang D.Y., Hannink M., Gu Z., Greenlief C.M., Yao J.K., Lee J.C., Beversdorf D.Q.: Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): An essential nutrient and a nutraceutical for brain health and diseases. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 2018; 136: 3–13 SunG.Y. SimonyiA. FritscheK.L. ChuangD.Y. HanninkM. GuZ. GreenliefC.M. YaoJ.K. LeeJ.C. BeversdorfD.Q. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): An essential nutrient and a nutraceutical for brain health and diseases Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2018 136 3 13 10.1016/j.plefa.2017.03.006908713528314621 Search in Google Scholar

[102] Szponar L., Mojska H., Ołtarzewski Ł., Piotrowska K.: Tłuszcze. W: Normy żywienia dla populacji Polski, red.: M. Jarosz. Instytut Żywności i Żywienia, Warszawa 2017, 56–75 SzponarL. MojskaH. OłtarzewskiŁ. PiotrowskaK. Tłuszcze W: Normy żywienia dla populacji Polski red.: JaroszM. Instytut Żywności i Żywienia Warszawa 2017 56 75 Search in Google Scholar

[103] Szwed A., Miłowska K.: Rola białek w chorobach neurodegeneracyjnych. Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw., 2012; 66: 187–195 SzwedA. MiłowskaK. Rola białek w chorobach neurodegeneracyjnych Postępy Hig. Med. Dośw. 2012 66 187 195 10.5604/17322693.99144622706103 Search in Google Scholar

[104] Takao H., Hayashi N., Ohtomo K.: A longitudinal study of brain volume changes in normal aging. Eur. J. Radiol., 2012; 81: 2801–2804 TakaoH. HayashiN. OhtomoK. A longitudinal study of brain volume changes in normal aging Eur. J. Radiol. 2012 81 2801 2804 10.1016/j.ejrad.2011.10.01122104089 Search in Google Scholar

[105] Tan J.H., Abdin E., Shahwan S., Zhang Y., Sambasivam R., Vaingankar J.A., Mahendran R., Chua H.C., Chong S.A., Subramaniam M.: Happiness and cognitive impairment among older adults: Investigating the mediational roles of disability, depression, social contact frequency, and loneliness. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 2019; 16: 4954 TanJ.H. AbdinE. ShahwanS. ZhangY. SambasivamR. VaingankarJ.A. MahendranR. ChuaH.C. ChongS.A. SubramaniamM. Happiness and cognitive impairment among older adults: Investigating the mediational roles of disability, depression, social contact frequency, and loneliness Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019 16 4954 10.3390/ijerph16244954695012731817633 Search in Google Scholar

[106] Tan Z.S., Harris W.S., Beiser A.S., Au R., Himali J.J., Debette S., Pikula A., Decarli C., Wolf P.A., Vasan R.S., Robins S.J., Seshadri S.: Red blood cell ω-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging. Neurology, 2012; 78: 658–664 TanZ.S. HarrisW.S. BeiserA.S. AuR. HimaliJ.J. DebetteS. PikulaA. DecarliC. WolfP.A. VasanR.S. RobinsS.J. SeshadriS. Red blood cell ω-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging Neurology 2012 78 658 664 10.1212/WNL.0b013e318249f6a9328622922371413 Search in Google Scholar

[107] Titova O.E., Sjögren P., Brooks S.J., Kullberg J., Ax E., Kilander L., Riserus U., Cederholm T., Larsson E.M., Johansson L., Ahlström H., Lind L., Schiöth H.B., Benedict C.: Dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids is linked to gray matter volume and cognitive function in elderly. Age, 2013; 35: 1495–1505 TitovaO.E. SjögrenP. BrooksS.J. KullbergJ. AxE. KilanderL. RiserusU. CederholmT. LarssonE.M. JohanssonL. AhlströmH. LindL. SchiöthH.B. BenedictC. Dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids is linked to gray matter volume and cognitive function in elderly Age 2013 35 1495 1505 10.1007/s11357-012-9453-3370511822791395 Search in Google Scholar

[108] Treder N., Jodzio K.: Heterogeniczność funkcjonowania poznawczego i jego zaburzeń u osób star-szych. Psychiatria i Psychoterapia, 2013; 9: 3–13 TrederN. JodzioK. Heterogeniczność funkcjonowania poznawczego i jego zaburzeń u osób star-szych Psychiatria i Psychoterapia 2013 9 3 13 Search in Google Scholar

[109] van de Rest O., Spiro A. 3rd, Krall-Kaye E., Geleijnse J.M., de Groot L.C., Tucker K.L.: Intakes of (n-3) fatty acids and fatty fish are not associated with cognitive performance and 6-year cognitive change in men participating in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study. J. Nutr., 2009; 139: 2329–2336 van de RestO. SpiroA.3rd Krall-KayeE. GeleijnseJ.M. de GrootL.C. TuckerK.L. Intakes of (n-3) fatty acids and fatty fish are not associated with cognitive performance and 6-year cognitive change in men participating in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study J. Nutr. 2009 139 2329 2336 10.3945/jn.109.113647277747919828689 Search in Google Scholar

[110] van Gelder B.M., Tijhuis M., Kalmijn S., Kromhout D.: Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2007; 85: 1142–1147 van GelderB.M. TijhuisM. KalmijnS. KromhoutD. Fish consumption, n-3 fatty acids, and subsequent 5-y cognitive decline in elderly men: The Zutphen Elderly Study Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007 85 1142 1147 10.1093/ajcn/85.4.114217413117 Search in Google Scholar

[111] Vedin I., Cederholm T., Freund Levi Y., Basun H., Garlind A., Faxén Irving G., Jönhagen M.E., Vessby B., Wahlund L.O., Palmblad J.: Effects of docosahexaenoic acid-rich n-3 fatty acid supplementation on cytokine release from blood mononuclear leukocytes: The OmegAD study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2008; 87: 1616–1622 VedinI. CederholmT. Freund LeviY. BasunH. GarlindA. Faxén IrvingG. JönhagenM.E. VessbyB. WahlundL.O. PalmbladJ. Effects of docosahexaenoic acid-rich n-3 fatty acid supplementation on cytokine release from blood mononuclear leukocytes: The OmegAD study Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008 87 1616 1622 10.1093/ajcn/87.6.161618541548 Search in Google Scholar

[112] Vela S., Sainz N., Moreno-Aliaga M.J., Solas M., Ramirez M.J.: DHA selectively protects SAMP-8-associated cognitive deficits through inhibition of JNK. Mol. Neurobiol., 2019; 56: 1618–1627 VelaS. SainzN. Moreno-AliagaM.J. SolasM. RamirezM.J. DHA selectively protects SAMP-8-associated cognitive deficits through inhibition of JNK Mol. Neurobiol. 2019 56 1618 1627 10.1007/s12035-018-1185-729911253 Search in Google Scholar

[113] Virtanen J.K., Siscovick D.S., Lemaitre R.N., Longstreth W.T., Spiegelman D., Rimm E.B., King I.B., Mozaffarian D.: Circulating omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and subclinical brain abnormalities on MRI in older adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study. J. Am. Heart Assoc., 2013; 2: e000305 VirtanenJ.K. SiscovickD.S. LemaitreR.N. LongstrethW.T. SpiegelmanD. RimmE.B. KingI.B. MozaffarianD. Circulating omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and subclinical brain abnormalities on MRI in older adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2013 2 e000305 10.1161/JAHA.113.000305383523624113325 Search in Google Scholar

[114] Vogels R.L., Scheltens P., Schroeder-Tanka J.M., Weinstein H.C.: Cognitive impairment in heart failure: A systematic review of the literature. Eur. J. Heart Fail., 2007; 9: 440–449 VogelsR.L. ScheltensP. Schroeder-TankaJ.M. WeinsteinH.C. Cognitive impairment in heart failure: A systematic review of the literature Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2007 9 440 449 10.1016/j.ejheart.2006.11.00117174152 Search in Google Scholar

[115] Wandell B.A.: Clarifying human white matter. Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 2016; 39: 103–128 WandellB.A. Clarifying human white matter Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2016 39 103 128 10.1146/annurev-neuro-070815-01381527050319 Search in Google Scholar

[116] Weiser M.J., Butt C.M., Mohajeri M.H.: Docosahexaenoic acid and cognition throughout the lifespan. Nutrients, 2016; 8: 99 WeiserM.J. ButtC.M. MohajeriM.H. Docosahexaenoic acid and cognition throughout the lifespan Nutrients 2016 8 99 10.3390/nu8020099477206126901223 Search in Google Scholar

[117] Wróblewska I., Zborowska I., Dąbek A., Susło R., Wróblewska Z., Drobnik J.: Health status, health behaviors, and the ability to perform everyday activities in Poles aged ≥65 years staying in their home environment. Clin. Interv. Aging, 2018; 13: 355–363 WróblewskaI. ZborowskaI. DąbekA. SusłoR. WróblewskaZ. DrobnikJ. Health status, health behaviors, and the ability to perform everyday activities in Poles aged ≥65 years staying in their home environment Clin. Interv. Aging 2018 13 355 363 10.2147/CIA.S152456584027329535509 Search in Google Scholar

[118] Wu A., Ying Z., Gomez-Pinilla F.: Docosahexaenoic acid dietary supplementation enhances the effects of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition. Neuroscience, 2008; 155: 751–759 WuA. YingZ. Gomez-PinillaF. Docosahexaenoic acid dietary supplementation enhances the effects of exercise on synaptic plasticity and cognition Neuroscience 2008 155 751 759 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.05.061320864318620024 Search in Google Scholar

[119] Wu S., Ding Y., Wu F., Li R., Hou J., Mao P.: Omega-3 fatty acids intake and risks of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: A meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2015; 48: 1–9 WuS. DingY. WuF. LiR. HouJ. MaoP. Omega-3 fatty acids intake and risks of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: A meta-analysis Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2015 48 1 9 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.11.00825446949 Search in Google Scholar

[120] Yassine H.N., Rawat V., Mack W.J., Quinn J.F., Yurko-Mauro K., Bailey-Hall E., Aisen P.S., Chui H.C., Schneider L.S.: The effect of APOE genotype on the delivery of DHA to cerebrospinal fluid in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Res. Ther., 2016; 8: 25 YassineH.N. RawatV. MackW.J. QuinnJ.F. Yurko-MauroK. Bailey-HallE. AisenP.S. ChuiH.C. SchneiderL.S. The effect of APOE genotype on the delivery of DHA to cerebrospinal fluid in Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimers Res. Ther. 2016 8 25 10.1186/s13195-016-0194-x492834927358067 Search in Google Scholar

[121] Yurko-Mauro K., Alexander D.D., Van Elswyk M.E.: Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2015; 10: e0120391 Yurko-MauroK. AlexanderD.D. Van ElswykM.E. Docosahexaenoic acid and adult memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis PLoS One 2015 10 e0120391 10.1371/journal.pone.0120391436497225786262 Search in Google Scholar

[122] Zhang Y., Chen J., Qiu J., Li Y., Wang J., Jiao J.: Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: A dose-response meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2016; 103: 330–340 ZhangY. ChenJ. QiuJ. LiY. WangJ. JiaoJ. Intakes of fish and polyunsaturated fatty acids and mild-to-severe cognitive impairment risks: A dose-response meta-analysis of 21 cohort studies Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2016 103 330 340 10.3945/ajcn.115.12408126718417 Search in Google Scholar