Gradient analysis of landscape variation in Norway

Alahuhta, J., Toivanen, M. & Hjort, J. 2019. Geodiversity–biodiversity relationship needs more empirical evidence. – Nat. Ecol. Evol. 4: 2-3.10.1038/s41559-019-1051-731745262 Search in Google Scholar

Allen, T.F.H. & Starr, T.B. 1982. Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological complexity. – University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Search in Google Scholar

Allen, T.F.H. & Hoekstra, T. W. 1992. Toward a unified ecology. – Columbia University Press, New York. Search in Google Scholar

Almås, R., Gjerdåker, B., Lunden, K., Myhre, B. & Øye, I. 2004. Norwegian agricultural history. – Tapir, Trondheim. Search in Google Scholar

Anonymous 2000. European landscape convention. Council of Europe, Strasbourg. Search in Google Scholar

Anonymous, 2009. Act of 19 June 2009 No. 100 Relating to the Management of Biological, eo-logical and Landscape Diversity (Norwegian Nature Diversity Act). – Norwegian ministry of environment, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Antrop, M. 2004. Landscape change and the urbanization process in Europe. – Landsc. Urban Plan. 67: 9-26.10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00026-4 Search in Google Scholar

Austin, M.P. 1985. Continuum concept, ordination methods, and niche theory. – Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 16: 39-61.10.1146/annurev.es.16.110185.000351 Search in Google Scholar

Austin, M.P. 2002. Spatial prediction of species distribution: an interface between ecological theory and statistical modelling. – Ecol. Model. 157: 101-118.10.1016/S0304-3800(02)00205-3 Search in Google Scholar

Bailey, R.G. 2009. Ecosystem Geography: From Ecoregions to Sites. – Springer, New York.10.1007/978-0-387-89516-1 Search in Google Scholar

Bailey, R.G. 2014. Ecoregions: The Ecosystem Geography of the Oceans and Continents. – Springer, New York.10.1007/978-1-4939-0524-9_3 Search in Google Scholar

Bakkestuen, V., Erikstad, L. & Halvorsen, R. 2008. Step-less models for regional environmental variation in Norway. – J. Biogeogr. 35: 1906–1922.10.1111/j.1365-2699.2008.01941.x Search in Google Scholar

Barth, A. 1944. Skogskjøtsel på biologisk grunnlag. – Grøndahl & Søn Forlag, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Birks, H.J.B. 1993. Quaternary paleoecology and vegetation science - current contributions and possible future-developments. – Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol. 79: 153-177.10.1016/0034-6667(93)90045-V Search in Google Scholar

Blanchet, F.G., Legendre, P. & Borcard, D. 2008. Forward selection of explanatory variables. – Ecology 89: 2623–2632.10.1890/07-0986.118831183 Search in Google Scholar

Bouttier, J., Di Fransesco, P. & Guitter, E. 2003. Geodesic distance in planar graphs. – Nucl. Phys. Ser. B 663: 535–567.10.1016/S0550-3213(03)00355-9 Search in Google Scholar

Brabyn, L. 2005. Solutions for characterising natural landscapes in New Zealand using geographical information systems. – J. Environ. Manage. 76: 23-34.10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.01.00515854734 Search in Google Scholar

Bray, J.R. & Curtis, J.T. 1957. An ordination of the upland forest communities of Southern Wisconsin. – Ecol. Monogr. 27: 327–349.10.2307/1942268 Search in Google Scholar

Bryn, A., Dourojeanni, P., Hemsing, L. Ø. & O’Donnell, S. 2013. A high-resolution GIS null model of potential forest expansion following land use changes in Norway. – Scand. J. For. Res. 28: 81-98.10.1080/02827581.2012.689005 Search in Google Scholar

Bryn, A., Strand, G.H., Angeloff, M. & Rekdal, Y. 2018. Land cover in Norway based on an area frame survey of vegetation types. – Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 72: 131–145.10.1080/00291951.2018.1468356 Search in Google Scholar

Bunce, R.G.H., Barr, C. J., Clarke, R.T., Howard, D.C. & Lane, A.M. J. 1996. Special Paper: ITE Merlewood Land Classification of Great Britain. – J. Biogeogr. 23: 625-634.10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00023.x Search in Google Scholar

Chuman, T. & Romportl, D. 2010. Multivariate classification analysis of cultural landscapes: An example from the Czech Republic. – Landsc. Urban Plann. 98: 200-209.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.08.003 Search in Google Scholar

Curtis, J.T. 1959. The vegetation of Wisconsin; an ordination of plant communities. –University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Search in Google Scholar

Cushman S.A., Gutzweiler K., Evans J.S., McGarigal K. (2010) The Gradient Paradigm: A Conceptual and Analytical Framework for Landscape Ecology. – In: Cushman S.A., Huettmann F. (eds) Spatial Complexity, Informatics, and Wildlife Conservation. Springer, Tokyo, pp- 83–108.10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4_5 Search in Google Scholar

Czekanowski, J. 1909. Zur differential Diagose der Neandertalgruppe. – Korrespondenzbl. dt. Ges. Anthrop. 40: 44–47. Search in Google Scholar

Dawkins, R. 1986. The blind watchmaker. – Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex. Search in Google Scholar

De’ath, G. 1999. Extended dissimilarity: a method of robust estimation of ecological distances from high beta diversity data. – Pl. Ecol. 144: 191–199. Search in Google Scholar

Delcourt, H.R., Delcourt, P.A. & Webb, T. 1982. Dynamic plant ecology: the spectrum of vegetational change in space and time. – Quaternary Science Reviews 1: 153-175.10.1016/0277-3791(82)90008-7 Search in Google Scholar

Delcourt, H.R. & Delcourt, P.A. 1988. Quaternary landscape ecology: Relevant scales in space and time. – Landsc. Ecol. 2: 23-44.10.1007/BF00138906 Search in Google Scholar

Dikau, R. 1989. The application of a digital relief model to landform analysis in geomorphology. – In Raper, J.F. (ed), Three dimensional applications in geographical information systems, Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 51-77.10.1201/9781003069454-5 Search in Google Scholar

Dikau, R., Brabb, E.E. & Mark, R.M. 1991. Landform classification of New Mexico by computer. US Dept. of the Interior, US Geological Survey.10.3133/ofr91634 Search in Google Scholar

Einevoll, O. 1965. Nytten av eit økonomisk kartverk. – In: Løddesøl, A. (ed) Meddelelser fra Det norske myrselskap. Mariendals boktrykkeri, Gjøvik. Search in Google Scholar

Ellis, E.C., Goldewijk, K.K., Siebert, S., Lightman, D. & Ramankutty, N. 2010. Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. – Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 19: 589-606.10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00540.x Search in Google Scholar

Emanuelsson, U. 2009. The rural landscapes of Europe: how man has shaped European nature. – Formas, Stockholm. Search in Google Scholar

Erikstad, L., Halvorsen, R., Moen, A., Thorsnes T., Andersen, T., Blom, H.H., Elvebakk, A., Elven, R., Gaarder, G., Mortensen, P.B., Norderhaug, A., Nygaard, K., Ødegaard, F. 2009. Landformvariasjon (terrengformvariasjon og landformer). Naturtyper i Norge. Bakgrunnsdokument 14: 1-91. Search in Google Scholar

Erikstad, L., Blumentrath, S., Bakkestuen, V. & Halvorsen, R. 2013. Landskapstypekartlegging som verktøy til overvåking av arealbruksendringer. Norsk Inst. Naturforsk. Rapp 1006: 1-41. Search in Google Scholar

Erikstad, L., Uttakleiv, L.A. & Halvorsen, R. 2015. Characterisation and mapping of landscape types, a case study from Norway. – Belg. J. Geogr. 3: 1-15.10.4000/belgeo.17412 Search in Google Scholar

Estes, L., Elsen, P.R., Treuer, T., Ahmed, L., Caylor, K., Chang, J., Choi, J.J. and Ellis, E.C. 2018. The spatial and temporal domains of modern ecology. – Nat. Ecol. Evol.10.1038/s41559-018-0524-429610472 Search in Google Scholar

Fairclough, G. & Herring, P. 2016. Lens, mirror, window: interactions between Historic Land-scape Characterisation and Landscape Character Assessment. – Landsc. Res. 41: 186-198.10.1080/01426397.2015.1135318 Search in Google Scholar

Fjellstad, W.J., & Dramstad, W.E. 1999.. Patterns of change in two contrasting Norwegian agricultural landscapes. – Landsc. Urban Plan. 45: 177–191.10.1016/S0169-2046(99)00055-9 Search in Google Scholar

Forman, R.T.T. & Godron, M. 1986. Landscape ecology. – Wiley, New York. Search in Google Scholar

Fotheringham, A.S. & Wong, D.W.S. 1991. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem in Multivariate Statistical Analysis. – Environ.Plan. A – Economy and Space 23: 1025-1044.10.1068/a231025 Search in Google Scholar

Gehlke, C.E. & Biel, K. 1934. Certain effects of grouping upon the size of the correlation coefficient in census tract material. – J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 29: 169-170.10.1080/01621459.1934.10506247 Search in Google Scholar

Gelman, A. & Hennig, C. 2017. Beyond subjective and objective in statistics. – J. R. Stat. Soc. 180: 967-1033.10.1111/rssa.12276 Search in Google Scholar

Gjessing, J. 1977. Norges geografi. – Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Gjessing, J. 1978. Norges landformer. – Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Gjærevoll, O. 1973. Plantegeografi. – Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Gleason, H.A. 1939. The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association. – Am. Midl. Nat. 21: 92-110.10.2307/2420377 Search in Google Scholar

Glømme, H. 1935. Forelesninger i jordbunnslære. – Norges Landbrukshøiskole. Ås. Search in Google Scholar

Halvorsen, R., (Ed.), (2015). Grunnlag for typeinndeling av natursystem-nivået i NiN – analyser av generaliserte artslistedatasett. Natur i Norge (NiN) Artikkel, 2 (Version 2.0.2), 1–283. Search in Google Scholar

Halvorsen, R., Bryn, A. & Erikstad, L. 2016. NiNs systemkjerne – teori, prinsipper og inndelingskriterier. – Natur i Norge, Artikkel 1 (versjon 2.1.0): 1–358. Artsdatabanken, Trondheim. Search in Google Scholar

Halvorsen, R., Skarpaas, O., Bryn, A., Bratli, H., Erikstad, L., Simensen, T. & Eriksen, E.L. 2020. Towards a systematics of ecodiversity: The EcoSyst framework. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 29: 1887-1906.10.1111/geb.13164 Search in Google Scholar

Hammond, E. H. 1954. Small-Scale Continental Landform Maps. – Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 44: 33-42.10.1080/00045605409352120 Search in Google Scholar

Hansen, L. I., & Olsen, B. 2004. Samenes historie fram til 1750 – Cappelen akademisk forlag, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Hesselbarth, M.H.K., Sciaini, M., With, K.A., Wiegand, K. & Nowosad, J. 2019. landscapemetrics: an open-source R tool to calculate landscape metrics. – Ecography 42: 1648-1657.10.1111/ecog.04617 Search in Google Scholar

Hill, M.O. 1979. DECORANA—A FORTRAN Program for Detrended Correspondence Analysis and Reciprocal Averaging. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Search in Google Scholar

Hill, M.O. 1979. TWINSPAN: a FORTRAN program for arranging multivariate data in an ordered two-way table by classification of the individual and attributes. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Search in Google Scholar

Hill, M.O. & Gauch, H.G. 1980. Detrended correspondence analysis: an improved ordination technique. – Vegetatio, 42, 11.10.1007/BF00048870 Search in Google Scholar

Holt-Jensen, A. 2009. Geography. History and Concepts: A Student´s Guide. – Sage Publications LTD, London. Search in Google Scholar

Ives, A.R. & Carpenter, S.R. 2007. Stability and Diversity of Ecosystems. – Science 317: 58-62.10.1126/science.113325817615333 Search in Google Scholar

Jakobsson, S., Bakkestuen, V., Barton, D.N., Lindhjem, H. & Magnussen, K. 2020. Utredning av tilgjengelige og relevante datagrunnlag for kategorisering av naturareal. Norsk Inst. Naturforsk. Rapp 1767: 1–48. Search in Google Scholar

Jasiewicz, J. & Stepinski, T.F. 2013. Geomorphons — a pattern recognition approach to classification and mapping of landforms. – Geomorphology 182: 147-156.10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.11.005 Search in Google Scholar

Jelinski, D.E. & Wu, J.G. 1996. The modifiable areal unit problem and implications for landscape ecology. – Landsc. Ecol. 11: 129-140.10.1007/BF02447512 Search in Google Scholar

Jacobsen, H., & Follum J.-R. 2008. Kulturminner i Norge. Tun Forlag, Oslo Search in Google Scholar

Karagulle, D., Frye, C., Sayre, R., Breyer, S., Aniello, P., Vaughan, R. & Wright, D. 2017. Modeling global Hammond landform regions from 250-m elevation data. – Trans. GIS 21: 1040-1060.10.1111/tgis.12265 Search in Google Scholar

King, A.W. 2005. Hierarchy theory and the landscape … level? or, Words do matter. – In: J.A. Wiens & M.R. Moss (eds), Issues and Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 29-35.10.1017/CBO9780511614415.005 Search in Google Scholar

Klemsdal, T. 1982. Coastal classification and the coast of Norway. – Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 36: 129-152.10.1080/00291958208552078 Search in Google Scholar

Kruskal, J.B. 1964a. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling: a numerical method. – Psychometrika 29: 115–129.10.1007/BF02289694 Search in Google Scholar

Kruskal, J.B. 1964b. Multidimensional scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to a nonmetric hypothesis. – Psychometrika, 29: 1–27.10.1007/BF02289565 Search in Google Scholar

Krøgli, S., Fjellstad, W., Heggem, E., Dramstad, W., Eiter, S. & Puschmann, O. 2015. Landskap i ruter – et fleksibelt system for landskapsanalyser. – Kart og Plan 4: 328-341. Search in Google Scholar

Lausch, A., Blaschke, T., Haase, D., Herzog, F., Syrbe, R.-U., Tischendorf, L. & Walz, U. 2015. Understanding and quantifying landscape structure – A review on relevant process characteristics, data models and landscape metrics. – Ecol. Model. 295: 31-41.10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2014.08.018 Search in Google Scholar

Legendre, P. & Legendre, L.F.J. 2012. Numerical Ecology, 3rd ed. – Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. Search in Google Scholar

Lomolino, M.V., Riddle, B.R. & Whittaker, R.J. 2017. Biogeography: biological diversity across space and time. – Sinauer Associates, Massachusetts. Search in Google Scholar

Lovelace, R., Nowosad, J. & Muenchow, J. 2019. Geocomputation with R: CRC Press, New Jersey.10.1201/9780203730058 Search in Google Scholar

Luck, M. & Wu, J. 2002. A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region, Arizona, USA. – Landsc. Ecol. 17: 327-339.10.1023/A:1020512723753 Search in Google Scholar

MacQueen, J. 1967. Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations. – In [redaktører] (eds), Proceedings of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, Volume 1: Statistics, University of California Press, Berkeley CA, pp. 281–297. Search in Google Scholar

Mahecha, M.D., Martinez, A., Lischeid, G. & Beck, E. 2007. Nonlinear dimensionality reduction: Alternative ordination approaches for extracting and visualizing biodiversity patterns in tropical montane forest vegetation data. – Ecol. Inform. 2: 138–149.10.1016/j.ecoinf.2007.05.002 Search in Google Scholar

Malinowska, E. & Szumacher, I. 2013. Application of landscape metrics in the evaluation of geodiversity. – Misc. Geogr. 17: 28–33.10.2478/v10288-012-0045-y Search in Google Scholar

Marsh, W.M. 2005. Landscape planning: Environmental applications. – John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. Search in Google Scholar

Mattsson, J.O., Behrens, S., Bergsten, K.E., Helldén, U., Hillefors, Å., Rapp, A. and Åkermann, J. 1984. Terrängformer i Norden. – Nordiska Ministerrådet, Arlöv. Search in Google Scholar

McGarigal, K. & Cushman, S.A. 2005. The gradient concept of landscape structure. – In: J.A. Wiens & M.R. Moss (eds), Issues and Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, pp. 112-119.10.1017/CBO9780511614415.013 Search in Google Scholar

McGill, B.J. 2010a. Matters of Scale. – Science 328: 575-576.10.1126/science.118852820431001 Search in Google Scholar

McGill, B.J. 2010b. Towards a unification of unified theories of biodiversity. – Ecol. Lett. 13: 627-642.10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01449.x20337695 Search in Google Scholar

McHarg, I.L. 1969. Design with nature. – American Museum of Natural History, New York. Search in Google Scholar

McIntosh, R.P. 1967. The continuum concept of vegetation. – Bot. Rev. 33: 130-187.10.1007/BF02858667 Search in Google Scholar

Minchin, P.R. 1989. Montane vegetation of the Mt. Field massif, Tasmania: a test of some hypotheses about properties of community patterns. – Vegetatio, 83(1), 97–110.10.1007/BF00031683 Search in Google Scholar

Moen, A. 1999. National atlas of Norway: Vegetation. Norwegian Mapping Authority, Hønefoss. Search in Google Scholar

Moeslund, J.E., Arge, L., Bøcher, P.K., Dalgaard, T. & Svenning, J.-C. 2013. Topography as a driver of local terrestrial vascular plant diversity patterns. – Nord. J. Bot. 31: 129-144.10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.00082.x Search in Google Scholar

Nordhagen, R. 1917. Planteveksten paa Froøene og nærliggende øer: bidrag til kundskapen om naturforholdene i Norges skjærgaard. – Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskap Skrifter 8-1916, Trondheim. Search in Google Scholar

Noss, R.F. 1990. Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach. – Conserv. Biol. 4: 355-364.10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00309.x Search in Google Scholar

Oksanen, J., Blanchet, F.G., Friendly, M., Kindt, R., Legendre, P., McGlinn, D., Minchin, P.R., Hara, R.B.O., Simpson, G.L., Solymos, P., Stevens, M.H.H., Szoecs, E. and Wagner, H. 2016. Vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 2.4-1. Search in Google Scholar

O’Neill, R.V., Deangelis, D.L., Waide, J.B., Allen, T.F. & Allen, G.E. 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems. – Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Search in Google Scholar

R Core Team. 2018. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. In. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Search in Google Scholar

Paine, R.T. 1969. A note on trophic complexity and community stability. –Am. Nat. 103: 91-93.10.1086/282586 Search in Google Scholar

Pereira, H.M., Ferrier, S., Walters, M., Geller, G.N., Jongman, R.H.G., Scholes, R.J., Bruford, M.W., Brummitt, N., Butchart, S.H.M., Cardoso, A.C., Coops, N.C., Dulloo, E., Faith, D.P., Freyhof, J., Gregory, R.D., Heip, C., Höft, R., Hurtt, G., Jetz, W., Karp, D.S., McGeoch, M.A., Obura, D., Onoda, Y., Pettorelli, N., Reyers, B., Sayre, R., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Stuart, S.N., Turak, E., Walpole, M. and Wegmann, M. 2013. Essential Biodiversity Variables. – Science 339: 277-278.10.1126/science.122993123329036 Search in Google Scholar

Phillips, J.D. 2007. The perfect landscape. – Geomorphology 84: 159-169.10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.039 Search in Google Scholar

Pike, R.J., Evans, I. and Hengl, T. 2009. Geomorphometry: a brief guide. – Dev. in Soil Sci. 33: 3-30.10.1016/S0166-2481(08)00001-9 Search in Google Scholar

Puschmann, O. 2005. Nasjonalt referansesystem for landskap: beskrivelse av Norges 45 land-skapsregioner. – Norsk Inst. Jord- Skogkartlegging Rapp. 10:2005. Search in Google Scholar

Ramberg, I.B., Bryhni, I., Nøttvedt, A. & Rangnes, K. (eds). 2008. The making of a land - Geology of Norway. – Geological Society of Norway, Trondheim. Search in Google Scholar

Rao, C. R. 1964. The use and interpretation of principal component analysis in applied research. Sankhyā: – Indian J. Stat., Series A, 329–358. Search in Google Scholar

Ratajczak, Z., Carpenter, S.R., Ives, A.R., Kucharik, C.J., Ramiadantsoa, T., Stegner, M.A., Williams, J.W., Zhang, J. and Turner, M.G. 2018. Abrupt Change in Ecological Systems: Inference and Diagnosis. – Trends Ecol. Evol. 33: 513-526.10.1016/j.tree.2018.04.01329784428 Search in Google Scholar

Reusch, H.H. 1894. Strandflaten, et nyt trek i Norges Geografi. – Norges geologiske undersøkelse 14: 1-14. Search in Google Scholar

Reusch, H. 1905. Norges geografi. – T.O. Brøgger, Kristiania. Search in Google Scholar

Ripple, W.J., Estes, J.A., Schmitz, O.J., Constant, V., Kaylor, M.J., Lenz, A., Motley, J.L., Self, K.E., Taylor, D.S. and Wolf, C. 2016. What is a trophic cascade? – Trends Ecol. Evol. 31: 842-849.10.1016/j.tree.2016.08.01027663836 Search in Google Scholar

Rudberg, S. 1960. Geography of Norden. – In: A. Sømme (ed) Cappelen, Oslo, pp. 27–40. Search in Google Scholar

Sanderson, E.W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M.A., Redford, K.H., Wannebo, A.V. & Woolmer, G. 2002. The Human Footprint and the Last of the Wild: The human footprint is a global map of human influence on the land surface, which suggests that human beings are stewards of nature, whether we like it or not. – Bioscience 52: 891-904.10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:THFATL]2.0.CO;2 Search in Google Scholar

Sayre, R., Dangermond, J., Frye, C., Vaughan, R., Aniello, P., Breyer, S., Cribbs, D., Hopkins, D., Nauman, R., Derrenbacher, W., Wright, D., Brown, C., Convis, C., Smith, J., Benson, L., Paco VanSistine, D., Warner, H., Cress, J., Danielson, J., Hamann, S., Cecere, T., Reddy, A., Burton, D., Grosse, A., True, D., Metzger, M., Hartmann, J., Moosdorf, N., Dürr, H., Paganini, M., De-Fourny, P., Arino, O., Maynard, S., Anderson, M. and Comer, P. 2014. A New Map of Global Ecological Land Units - An Ecophysiographic Stratification Approach. – Association of American Geographers, Washington, DC. Search in Google Scholar

Sayre, R., Karagulle, D., Frye, C., Boucher, T., Wolff, N.H., Breyer, S., Wright, D., Martin, M., Butler, K., Van Graafeiland, K., Touval, J., Sotomayor, L., McGowan, J., Game, E.T. and Possingham, H. 2019. An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps of World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. – Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 21: e0086010.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00860 Search in Google Scholar

Schrodt, F., Santos, M.J., Bailey, J.J. & Field, R. 2019. Challenges and opportunities for biogeography—What can we still learn from von Humboldt? – J. Biogeogr. 46: 1631-1642.10.1111/jbi.13616 Search in Google Scholar

Simensen, T., Halvorsen, R. & Erikstad, L. 2018. Methods for landscape characterisation and mapping: A systematic review. – Land Use Policy 75: 557-569.10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.04.022 Search in Google Scholar

Simensen, T., Erikstad, L., & Halvorsen, R. (2021). Diversity and distribution of landscape types in Norway. Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 75: 79-100.10.1080/00291951.2021.1892177 Search in Google Scholar

Simensen, T., Horvath, P., Vollering, J., Erikstad, L., Halvorsen, R., Bryn, A. 2020. Composite landscape predictors improve distribution models of ecosystem types. Divers Distrib. 00: 1–16.10.1111/ddi.13060 Search in Google Scholar

Simpson, G.G. 1945. The principles of classification and a classification of mammals. – Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 85: 1:349. Search in Google Scholar

Skånes, H.M. 1997. Towards an integrated ecological–geographical landscape perspective. A review of principal concepts and methods. – Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 51: 145-171.10.1080/00291959708545892 Search in Google Scholar

Son, T. C. v. & Halvorsen, R. 2014. Multiple Parallel Ordinations: the Importance of Choice of Ordination Method and Weighting of Species Abundance Data. Sommerfeltia, 37: 1–37.10.2478/som-2014-0001 Search in Google Scholar

Strand, G.H. 2011. Uncertainty in classification and delineation of landscapes: A probabilistic approach to landscape modeling. – Environ. Model. Software 26: 1150-1157.10.1016/j.envsoft.2011.03.005 Search in Google Scholar

Sulebak, J.R. & Sjøstrøm, K.H. 2007. Landformer og prosesser: en innføring i naturgeografiske tema. – Fagbokforlaget, Bergen. Search in Google Scholar

Swan, J.M.A. 1970. An examination of some ordination problems by use of simulated vegetation data. – Ecology 51: 89–102.10.2307/1933602 Search in Google Scholar

Swanson, F.J., Kratz, T. K., Caine, N. & Woodmansee, R. G. 1988. Landform Effects on Ecosystem Patterns and Processes. – Bioscience 38: 92-98.10.2307/1310614 Search in Google Scholar

Sømme, A. 1938. Notiser Og Litteraturanmeldelser. – Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 7: 178-181.10.1080/00291953808551605 Search in Google Scholar

ter Braak, C.J. 1985. Correspondence analysis of incidence and abundance data: properties in terms of a unimodal response model. – Biometrics, 41: 859–873.10.2307/2530959 Search in Google Scholar

Tilman, D. & Kareiva, P. 2018. Spatial ecology: the role of space in population dynamics and interspecific interactions (MPB-30). – Princeton University Press, New Jersey.10.2307/j.ctv36zpzm Search in Google Scholar

Trømborg, D. 2006. Geologi og landformer i Norge. – Landbruksforlaget, Oslo. Search in Google Scholar

Tuomikoski, R. 1942. Untersuchungen über die Untervegetation der Bruchmoore in Ostfinnland I. Zur Methodik der pflanzensoziologischen Systematik. Annls bot. Soc. zool.-bot. fenn. Vanamo 17: 1: 1-203. Search in Google Scholar

Turner, M.G. 2010. Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world1. – Ecology 91: 2833-2849.10.1890/10-0097.121058545 Search in Google Scholar

Turner, M.G. & Gardner, R.H. 2015. Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice: Pattern and Process. – Springer, New York.10.1007/978-1-4939-2794-4 Search in Google Scholar

Urban, D.L., O’Neill, R.V. & Shugart, H.H. 1987. Landscape Ecology. A hierarchical perspective can help scientists understand spatial patterns. – Bioscience 37: 119-127.10.2307/1310366 Search in Google Scholar

van Eetvelde, V. & Antrop, M. 2009. A stepwise multi-scaled landscape typology and characterisation for trans-regional integration, applied on the federal state of Belgium. – Landsc. Urban Plan. 91: 160-170.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2008.12.008 Search in Google Scholar

van Elsas, J.D., Trevors, J.T., Jansson, J.K. & Nannipieri, P. 2006. Modern soil microbiology. – CRC press, Boca Raton, Florida.10.1201/9781420015201 Search in Google Scholar

van Groenendael, J., Ehrlén, J. & Svensson, B. M. 2000. Dispersal and Persistence: Population Processes and Community Dynamics. – Folia Geobot. 35: 107-114.10.1007/BF02803090 Search in Google Scholar

van Son, T.C. & Halvorsen, R. 2014. Multiple parallel ordination and data manipulation: the importance of weighting species abundance data – Sommerfeltia 37: 1–37.10.2478/som-2014-0001 Search in Google Scholar

Vitousek, P.M., Mooney, H.A., Lubchenco, J. & Melillo, J.M. 1997. Human Domination of Earth’s Ecosystems. – Science 277: 494.10.1126/science.277.5325.494 Search in Google Scholar

Vizzari, M., Hilal, M., Sigura, M., Antognelli, S. & Joly, D. 2018. Urban-rural-natural gradient analysis with CORINE data: An application to the metropolitan France. – Landsc. Urban Plan. 171: 18-29.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.11.005 Search in Google Scholar

Whittaker, R.H. 1952. A study of summer foliage insect communities in the Great Smoky Mountains. – Ecol. Monogr. 22: 1–44.10.2307/1948527 Search in Google Scholar

Whittaker, R.H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains. – Ecol. Monogr. 26: 1-80.10.2307/1943577 Search in Google Scholar

Whittaker, R.H. 1960. Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. – Ecol. Monogr. 30: 279-338.10.2307/1943563 Search in Google Scholar

Whittaker, R.H. 1967. Gradient analysis of vegetation. – Biol. Rev. 42: 207-264.10.1111/j.1469-185X.1967.tb01419.x4859903 Search in Google Scholar

Wiens, J.A. 1989. Spatial Scaling in Ecology. – Funct. Ecol. 3: 385-397.10.2307/2389612 Search in Google Scholar

Williamson, M.H. 1978. The ordination of incidence data. – J. Ecol. 66: 911–920.10.2307/2259303 Search in Google Scholar

Winsnes, T., Sørensen, R., Bakkelid, S., Torp, B., Kristiansen, K.J. & Sollid, J.L. 1983. Nasjonalatlas for Norge: hovedtema 2: Landformer, berggrunn og løsmasser. – Statens kartverk, Hønefoss. Search in Google Scholar

Xu, C., Kohler, T.A., Lenton, T.M., Svenning, J.C. & Scheffer, M. 2020. Future of the human climate niche. – Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117: 11350–11355.10.1073/pnas.1910114117726094932366654 Search in Google Scholar

Yang, D., Gao, C., Li, L. & van Eetvelde, V. 2020. Multi-scaled identification of landscape character types and areas in Lushan National Park and its fringes, China. – Landscape Urban Plann. 201: 103844.10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103844 Search in Google Scholar

Zarnetske, P.L., Read, Q.D., Record, S., Gaddis, K.D., Pau, S., Hobi, M.L., Malone, S.L., Costanza, J., M. Dahlin, K., Latimer, A.M., Wilson, A.M., Grady, J.M., Ollinger, S.V. and Finley, A.O. 2019. Towards connecting biodiversity and geodiversity across scales with satellite remote sensing. – Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 28: 548-556.10.1111/geb.12887655916131217748 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. & Bendiksen, E. 1985. The vegetation of of the forest-alpine transition in the Grunningsdalen area, Telemark, SE Norway. – Sommerfeltia 2: 1-224.10.2478/som-1985-0002 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. 1990. Vegetation ecology: theory, methods and applications with reference to Fennoscandia. – Sommerfeltia Suppl. 1: 1–233.10.2478/som-1990-0003 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. & Eilertsen, O. 1993. Vegetation-environment relationships of boreal coniferous forests in the Solhomfjell area, Gjerstad, S Norway. – Sommerfeltia 16: 1-254.10.2478/som-1993-0002 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. 1986. Rescaling of ecological gradients. I. Calculation of ecological distance between vegetation stands by means of their floristic composition. – Nord. J. Bot. 6: 651–660.10.1111/j.1756-1051.1986.tb00464.x Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. 1996. Are ordination and constrained ordination alternative or complementary strategies in general ecological studies? – J. Veg. Sci. 7: 289–292.10.2307/3236330 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H. 2007. Wise use of statistical tools in ecological field studies. – Folia geobot. 42: 123–140.10.1007/BF02893879 Search in Google Scholar

Økland, R.H., Økland, T. & Rydgren, K. 2001. A Scandinavian perspective on ecological gradients in north-west European mires: reply to Wheeler and Proctor. – J. Ecol. 89: 481–486.10.1046/j.1365-2745.2001.00573.x Search in Google Scholar