Stevens’ measurement scales in marketing research – A continuation of discussion on whether researchers can ignore the Likert scale’s limitations as an ordinal scale
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Adams, E. W., Fagot, R. F., & Robinson, R. E. (1965). A theory of appropriate statistics. Psychometrika, 30(1), 99–127.AdamsE. W.FagotR. F.RobinsonR. E.1965A theory of appropriate statisticsPsychometrika30199127Search in Google Scholar
Białas, S. (1999). Metrologia techniczna z podstawami tolerowania wielkości geometrycznych dla mechaników [Technical metrology with fundamentals of geometric dimensioning for mechanics]. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej.BiałasS.1999Metrologia techniczna z podstawami tolerowania wielkości geometrycznych dla mechaników [Technical metrology with fundamentals of geometric dimensioning for mechanics]Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki WarszawskiejSearch in Google Scholar
Blaikie, N. (2003). Analyzing quantitative data. SAGE Publications.BlaikieN.2003Analyzing quantitative dataSAGE PublicationsSearch in Google Scholar
Bleichrodt, H., & Wakker, P. (2015). Regret theory: A bold alternative to the alternatives. The Economic Journal, 125(583), 493–532.BleichrodtH.WakkerP.2015Regret theory: A bold alternative to the alternativesThe Economic Journal125583493532Search in Google Scholar
Bligh, J. (2004). Ring the changes: Some resolutions for the new year and beyond. Medical Education, 38(1), 2–4.BlighJ.2004Ring the changes: Some resolutions for the new year and beyondMedical Education38124Search in Google Scholar
Bryman, A. (2005). Research methods and organization studies. Routledge.BrymanA.2005Research methods and organization studiesRoutledgeSearch in Google Scholar
Bryman, A. (1988). Quantity and quality in social research (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203410028BrymanA.1988Quantity and quality in social research1st ed.Routledgehttps://doi.org/10.4324/9780203410028Search in Google Scholar
Burke, C. J. (1953). Additive scales and statistics. Psychological Review, 60(1), 73–75.BurkeC. J.1953Additive scales and statisticsPsychological Review6017375Search in Google Scholar
Carifio, J., & Perla, R. (2007). Ten common misunderstandings, misconceptions, persistent myths, and urban legends about Likert scales and Likert response formats and their antidotes. Journal of Social Sciences, 3(2), 106–116.CarifioJ.PerlaR.2007Ten common misunderstandings, misconceptions, persistent myths, and urban legends about Likert scales and Likert response formats and their antidotesJournal of Social Sciences32106116Search in Google Scholar
Churchill, G. A. (2002). Badania marketingowe. Podstawy metodologiczne [Marketing research: Methodological foundations]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.ChurchillG. A.2002Badania marketingowe. Podstawy metodologiczne [Marketing research: Methodological foundations]Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWNSearch in Google Scholar
Clegg, F. (1998). Simple statistics. Cambridge University Press.CleggF.1998Simple statisticsCambridge University PressSearch in Google Scholar
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education (5th ed.). Routledge Falmer. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203224342CohenL.ManionL.MorrisonK.2000Research methods in education5th edRoutledge Falmerhttps://doi.org/10.4324/9780203224342Search in Google Scholar
Devine, F. (2006). Metody jakościowe [Qualitative methods]. In D. Marsh & G. Stoker (Eds.), Teorie i metody w naukach politycznych [Theories and methods in political sciences] (pp. 197–200).DevineF.2006Metody jakościowe [Qualitative methods]InMarshD.StokerG.(Eds.)Teorie i metody w naukach politycznych [Theories and methods in political sciences]197200Search in Google Scholar
Diamantopoulos, A., & Winklhofer, H. M. (2001). Index construction with formative indicators: An alternative to scale development. Journal of Marketing Research, 38(2), 269–277.DiamantopoulosA.WinklhoferH. M.2001Index construction with formative indicators: An alternative to scale developmentJournal of Marketing Research382269277Search in Google Scholar
Escher, I. (2010). Pomiar kierunku i siły marketingowej postawy pracownika – kompromis pomiędzy teorią a praktyką marketingową [Measuring the direction and strength of employee marketing attitudes – a compromise between theory and marketing practice]. Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici, Ekonomia, 41(397), 159–174.EscherI.2010Pomiar kierunku i siły marketingowej postawy pracownika – kompromis pomiędzy teorią a praktyką marketingową [Measuring the direction and strength of employee marketing attitudes – a compromise between theory and marketing practice]Acta Universitatis Nicolai Copernici, Ekonomia41397159174Search in Google Scholar
Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. (1982). Two structural equation models: LISREL and PLS applied to consumer exit-voice theory. Journal of Marketing Research, 19(4), 440–452.FornellC.BooksteinF.1982Two structural equation models: LISREL and PLS applied to consumer exit-voice theoryJournal of Marketing Research194440452Search in Google Scholar
Francuz, P., & Mackiewicz, R. (2007). Liczby nie wiedzą skąd pochodzą. Przewodnik po metodologii i statystyce nie tylko dla psychologów [Numbers don’t know where they come from. A guide to methodology and statistics not only for psychologists]. Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu Lubelskiego.FrancuzP.MackiewiczR.2007Liczby nie wiedzą skąd pochodzą. Przewodnik po metodologii i statystyce nie tylko dla psychologów [Numbers don’t know where they come from. A guide to methodology and statistics not only for psychologists]Redakcja Wydawnictw Katolickiego Uniwersytetu LubelskiegoSearch in Google Scholar
Frankfort-Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (2001). Metody badawcze w naukach społecznych [Research methods in social sciences]. Zysk i S-ka.Frankfort-NachmiasC.NachmiasD.2001Metody badawcze w naukach społecznych [Research methods in social sciences]Zysk i S-kaSearch in Google Scholar
Glass, G. V., Peckham, P. D., & Sanders, J. R. (1972). Consequences of failure to meet assumptions underlying the fixed effects analyses of variance and covariance. Review of Educational Research, 42(3), 237–288.GlassG. V.PeckhamP. D.SandersJ. R.1972Consequences of failure to meet assumptions underlying the fixed effects analyses of variance and covarianceReview of Educational Research423237288Search in Google Scholar
Główny Urząd Statystyczny. (n.d.). Pojęcia stosowane w statystyce publicznej [Concepts used in public statistics]. Główny Urząd Statystyczny. Retrieved March 1, 2025, from https://stat.gov.pl/metainformacje/slownik-pojec/pojecia-stosowane-w-statystyce-publicznej/2924,pojecie.htmlGłówny Urząd Statystyczny(n.d.)Pojęcia stosowane w statystyce publicznej [Concepts used in public statistics]Główny Urząd StatystycznyRetrieved March 1, 2025, from
https://stat.gov.pl/metainformacje/slownik-pojec/pojecia-stosowane-w-statystyce-publicznej/2924,pojecie.htmlSearch in Google Scholar
Hansen, J. P. (2003). CAN’T MISS – Conquer any number task by making important statistics simple. Part 1. Types of variables, mean, median, variance, and standard deviation. Journal of Healthcare Quality, 25(4), 19–24.HansenJ. P.2003CAN’T MISS – Conquer any number task by making important statistics simple. Part 1. Types of variables, mean, median, variance, and standard deviationJournal of Healthcare Quality2541924Search in Google Scholar
Jamieson, S. (2005). Likert scales: How to (ab)use them. Medical Education, 38(12), 1217–1218. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02012.xJamiesonS.2005Likert scales: How to (ab)use themMedical Education381212171218https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2004.02012.xSearch in Google Scholar
Jezior, J. (2013). Metodologiczne problemy zastosowania skali Likerta w badaniach postaw wobec bezrobocia [Methodological problems of using the Likert scale in research on attitudes towards unemployment]. Przegląd Socjologiczny, 62(1), 117–138.JeziorJ.2013Metodologiczne problemy zastosowania skali Likerta w badaniach postaw wobec bezrobocia [Methodological problems of using the Likert scale in research on attitudes towards unemployment]Przegląd Socjologiczny621117138Search in Google Scholar
Johnson, H. M. (1936). Pseudo-mathematics in the mental and social sciences. American Journal of Psychology, 48(3), 342–351.JohnsonH. M.1936Pseudo-mathematics in the mental and social sciencesAmerican Journal of Psychology483342351Search in Google Scholar
Kaczmarek, M., & Tarka, P. (2013). Metoda gromadzenia danych a ekwiwalencja wyników pomiaru systemu wartości w 5- i 7-stopniowych skalach ratingowych Likerta [Data collection method and equivalence of value system measurement results in 5- and 7-point Likert rating scales]. Handel Wewnętrzny, 5(346), 42–56.KaczmarekM.TarkaP.2013Metoda gromadzenia danych a ekwiwalencja wyników pomiaru systemu wartości w 5- i 7-stopniowych skalach ratingowych Likerta [Data collection method and equivalence of value system measurement results in 5- and 7-point Likert rating scales]Handel Wewnętrzny53464256Search in Google Scholar
Kaczmarczyk, S. (2014). Badania marketingowe. Podstawy metodyczne [Marketing research: Methodological foundations]. PWE.KaczmarczykS.2014Badania marketingowe. Podstawy metodyczne [Marketing research: Methodological foundations]PWESearch in Google Scholar
Kampen, J., & Swyngedouw, M. (2000). The ordinal controversy revisited. Quality and Quantity, 34(1), 87–102.KampenJ.SwyngedouwM.2000The ordinal controversy revisitedQuality and Quantity34187102Search in Google Scholar
Kero, P., & Lee, D. (2016). Likert is pronounced ‘LICK-urt’ not ‘LIE-kurt’ and the data are ordinal not interval. Journal of Applied Measurement, 17(4), 502–509.KeroP.LeeD.2016Likert is pronounced ‘LICK-urt’ not ‘LIE-kurt’ and the data are ordinal not intervalJournal of Applied Measurement174502509Search in Google Scholar
Knapp, T. R. (1990). Treating ordinal scales as interval scales: An attempt to resolve the controversy. Nursing Research, 39(2), 121–123.KnappT. R.1990Treating ordinal scales as interval scales: An attempt to resolve the controversyNursing Research392121123Search in Google Scholar
Krajewski, W. (1977). Correspondence principle and growth of science. Reidel.KrajewskiW.1977Correspondence principle and growth of scienceReidelSearch in Google Scholar
Kuzon, W. M., Urbanchek, M. G., & McCabe, S. (1996). The seven deadly sins of statistical analysis. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 37(3), 265–272.KuzonW. M.UrbanchekM. G.McCabeS.1996The seven deadly sins of statistical analysisAnnals of Plastic Surgery373265272Search in Google Scholar
Lieberson, S. (1964). Limitations in the application of non-parametric coefficients of correlation. American Sociological Review, 29(5), 744–746.LiebersonS.1964Limitations in the application of non-parametric coefficients of correlationAmerican Sociological Review295744746Search in Google Scholar
Lissowski, G., Haman, J., & Jasiński, M. (2008). Podstawy statystyki dla socjologów [Fundamentals of statistics for sociologists]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.LissowskiG.HamanJ.JasińskiM.2008Podstawy statystyki dla socjologów [Fundamentals of statistics for sociologists]Wydawnictwo Naukowe ScholarSearch in Google Scholar
Likert, R. (1932). A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 22(140), 55.LikertR.1932A technique for the measurement of attitudesArchives of Psychology2214055Search in Google Scholar
Mann, H. B., & Whitney, D. R. (1947). On a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the other. Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 18, 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177730491MannH. B.WhitneyD. R.1947On a test of whether one of two random variables is stochastically larger than the otherAnnals of Mathematical Statistics185060https://doi.org/10.1214/aoms/1177730491Search in Google Scholar
Mayntz, R., Holm, K., & Hubner, P. (1985). Wprowadzenie do metod socjologii empirycznej [Introduction to methods of empirical sociology]. PWN.MayntzR.HolmK.HubnerP.1985Wprowadzenie do metod socjologii empirycznej [Introduction to methods of empirical sociology]PWNSearch in Google Scholar
Mitchell, J. (1986). Measurement scales and statistics: A clash of paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 100(3), 398–407.MitchellJ.1986Measurement scales and statistics: A clash of paradigmsPsychological Bulletin1003398407Search in Google Scholar
Myers, J. L., & Well, A. D. (2003). Research design and statistical analysis (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.MyersJ. L.WellA. D.2003Research design and statistical analysis2nd edLawrence Erlbaum AssociatesSearch in Google Scholar
Nowak, S. (1973). Teorie postaw [Theories of attitudes]. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.NowakS.1973Teorie postaw [Theories of attitudes]Państwowe Wydawnictwo NaukoweSearch in Google Scholar
Nowak, S. (1985). Metodologia badań społecznych [Methodology of social research]. Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.NowakS.1985Metodologia badań społecznych [Methodology of social research]Państwowe Wydawnictwo NaukoweSearch in Google Scholar
Pett, M. A. (1997). Nonparametric statistics for health care research. SAGE Publications.PettM. A.1997Nonparametric statistics for health care researchSAGE PublicationsSearch in Google Scholar
Pearson, K. (1909). On a new method of determining the correlation between a measured character A and a character B. Biometrika, 7, 96–105.PearsonK.1909On a new method of determining the correlation between a measured character A and a character BBiometrika796105Search in Google Scholar
Regenwetter, M., & Dana, J. (2011). Transitivity of preferences. Psychological Review, 118(1), 42–56.RegenwetterM.DanaJ.2011Transitivity of preferencesPsychological Review11814256Search in Google Scholar
Sagan, A. (2003). Skale i indeksy jako narzędzia pomiaru w badaniach marketingowych [Scales and indices as measurement tools in marketing research]. Zeszyty Naukowe / Akademia Ekonomiczna w Krakowie, 640, 21–36.SaganA.2003Skale i indeksy jako narzędzia pomiaru w badaniach marketingowych [Scales and indices as measurement tools in marketing research]Zeszyty Naukowe / Akademia Ekonomiczna w Krakowie6402136Search in Google Scholar
Sagan, A. (2014). Wprowadzenie do modelowania zjawisk społecznych i przykłady zastosowań w Statistica [Introduction to modeling social phenomena and examples of applications in Statistica]. StatSoft Polska.SaganA.2014Wprowadzenie do modelowania zjawisk społecznych i przykłady zastosowań w Statistica [Introduction to modeling social phenomena and examples of applications in Statistica]StatSoft PolskaSearch in Google Scholar
Santina, M., & Perez, J. (2003). Health professionals’ sex and attitudes of health science students to health claims. Medical Education, 37(6), 509–513.SantinaM.PerezJ.2003Health professionals’ sex and attitudes of health science students to health claimsMedical Education376509513Search in Google Scholar
Siegel, S. (1956). Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. McGraw-Hill.SiegelS.1956Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciencesMcGraw-HillSearch in Google Scholar
Sobczyk, M. (2007). Statystyka [Statistics]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.SobczykM.2007Statystyka [Statistics]Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWNSearch in Google Scholar
Steczkowski, J., & Zeliaś, A. (1981). Statystyczne metody analizy cech jakościowych [Statistical methods of qualitative trait analysis]. PWE.SteczkowskiJ.ZeliaśA.1981Statystyczne metody analizy cech jakościowych [Statistical methods of qualitative trait analysis]PWESearch in Google Scholar
Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement. Science, 103(2684), 677–680.StevensS. S.1946On the theory of scales of measurementScience1032684677680Search in Google Scholar
Stevens, S. S. (1951). Mathematics, measurement and psychophysics. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology (pp. 1–49). John Wiley & Sons.StevensS. S.1951Mathematics, measurement and psychophysicsInStevensS. S.(Ed.)Handbook of experimental psychology149John Wiley & SonsSearch in Google Scholar
Stevens, S. S. (1959). Measurement, psychophysics and utility. In C. W. Churchman & P. Ratoosh (Eds.), Measurement; definitions and theories (pp. 18–61). Wiley.StevensS. S.1959Measurement, psychophysics and utilityInChurchmanC. W.RatooshP.(Eds.)Measurement; definitions and theories1861WileySearch in Google Scholar
Szewczak, W. (2010). Jak zmierzyć demokrację? Teoretyczne i metodologiczne podstawy budowy skal demokracji politycznej w politologii porównawczej [How to measure democracy? Theoretical and methodological foundations for constructing democracy scales in comparative political science]. Przegląd Politologiczny, 4, 98–100.SzewczakW.2010Jak zmierzyć demokrację? Teoretyczne i metodologiczne podstawy budowy skal demokracji politycznej w politologii porównawczej [How to measure democracy? Theoretical and methodological foundations for constructing democracy scales in comparative political science]Przegląd Politologiczny498100Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, M. A. (2019). Mathematization, not measurement: A critique of Stevens’ scales of measurement. Journal of Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences, 10(2), 76–94.ThomasM. A.2019Mathematization, not measurement: A critique of Stevens’ scales of measurementJournal of Methods and Measurement in the Social Sciences1027694Search in Google Scholar
Thurstone, L. L., & Chave, E. J. (1930). Theory of attitude measurement. In L. L. Thurstone & E. J. Chave (Eds.), The measurement of attitude (pp. 1–21). University of Chicago Press.ThurstoneL. L.ChaveE. J.1930Theory of attitude measurementInThurstoneL. L.ChaveE. J.(Eds.)The measurement of attitude121University of Chicago PressSearch in Google Scholar
Townsend, J. T., & Ashby, F. G. (1984). Measurement scales and statistics: The misconception misconceived. Psychological Review, 96(3), 394–401.TownsendJ. T.AshbyF. G.1984Measurement scales and statistics: The misconception misconceivedPsychological Review963394401Search in Google Scholar
Walesiak, M. (1993). Statystyczna analiza wielowymiarowa w badaniach marketingowych [Multivariate statistical analysis in marketing research]. Prace Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej we Wrocławiu, 654.WalesiakM.1993Statystyczna analiza wielowymiarowa w badaniach marketingowych [Multivariate statistical analysis in marketing research]Prace Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej we Wrocławiu654Search in Google Scholar
Walesiak, M. (1996). Metody analizy danych marketingowych [Methods of marketing data analysis]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.WalesiakM.1996Metody analizy danych marketingowych [Methods of marketing data analysis]Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWNSearch in Google Scholar
Walesiak, M. (2014). Wzmacnianie skali pomiaru dla danych porządkowych w statystycznej analizie wielowymiarowej [Strengthening measurement scales for ordinal data in multivariate statistical analysis]. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego We Wrocławiu, 327, 60–68.WalesiakM.2014Wzmacnianie skali pomiaru dla danych porządkowych w statystycznej analizie wielowymiarowej [Strengthening measurement scales for ordinal data in multivariate statistical analysis]Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego We Wrocławiu3276068Search in Google Scholar
Wiktorowicz, J., Grzelak, M. M., & Grzeszkiewicz-Radulska, K. (2020). Analiza statystyczna z IBM SPSS Statistics [Statistical analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics]. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego. https://doi.org/10.18778/8220-387-5WiktorowiczJ.GrzelakM. M.Grzeszkiewicz-RadulskaK.2020Analiza statystyczna z IBM SPSS Statistics [Statistical analysis with IBM SPSS Statistics]Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiegohttps://doi.org/10.18778/8220-387-5Search in Google Scholar
Wiśniewski, J. W. (1987). Teoria pomiaru a teoria błędów w badaniach statystycznych [Measurement theory and error theory in statistical research]. Wiadomości Statystyczne, 11, 18–20.WiśniewskiJ. W.1987Teoria pomiaru a teoria błędów w badaniach statystycznych [Measurement theory and error theory in statistical research]Wiadomości Statystyczne111820Search in Google Scholar
Zeller, R. A., & Carmines, E. G. (1980). Measurement in the social sciences: The link between theory and data. American Political Science Review, 76(4), 996–1008.ZellerR. A.CarminesE. G.1980Measurement in the social sciences: The link between theory and dataAmerican Political Science Review7649961008Search in Google Scholar