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Children Left Behind in China: The Role of School Fees

Hai-Anh H. Dang
Hai-Anh H. Dang
, 
Yang Huang
Yang Huang
 oraz 
Harris Selod
Harris Selod
   | 13 mar 2020
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Data publikacji: 13 mar 2020
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2020-0002
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© 2020 Hai-Anh H. Dang, Yang Huang, Harris Selod, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

School fee decomposition for migrants and urban residents.Note: City-level mean school fees of urban residents/migrants are decomposed into two components: (1) tuition fees and (2) other fees (including food and accommodation, remedial classes, uniform and other sponsorship fees, etc.)Source: Rural–Urban Migration in China 2008.
School fee decomposition for migrants and urban residents.Note: City-level mean school fees of urban residents/migrants are decomposed into two components: (1) tuition fees and (2) other fees (including food and accommodation, remedial classes, uniform and other sponsorship fees, etc.)Source: Rural–Urban Migration in China 2008.

Figure 2

School fees and lagged education spending shocks.Note: We plot the median school fees paid by migrants in 2007 against the city-level education spending shocks in 2006 (linear filter).Sources: Rural–Urban Migration in China 2008 and China City Statistical Yearbook 2002–2008.
School fees and lagged education spending shocks.Note: We plot the median school fees paid by migrants in 2007 against the city-level education spending shocks in 2006 (linear filter).Sources: Rural–Urban Migration in China 2008 and China City Statistical Yearbook 2002–2008.

Effects of median school fees on child migration, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)
Median school fee (Ln)−0.428** (0.169)−0.168*** (0.057)−0.160** (0.068)
Head’s age0.004 (0.004)0.004 (0.003)0.004 (0.003)
Head is female0.092 (0.058)0.025 (0.045)0.025 (0.045)
Head completed primary school0.013 (0.036)−0.013 (0.030)−0.012 (0.029)
Head completed middle school0.009 (0.028)0.024 (0.028)0.023 (0.027)
Head is working−0.115** (0.057)−0.112* (0.060)
Head is self-employed0.281*** (0.032)0.279*** (0.033)
Migrated within province0.133*** (0.048)0.123*** (0.038)
Growth rate of student–teacher ratio−0.014** (0.007)−0.013 (0.008)
Housing price in 2007 (’000 yuan)−0.004 (0.008)
Constant3.413*** (1.233)1.500*** (0.406)1.467*** (0.464)
Observations1,3491,3491,349
Mean of dependent variable0.3780.3780.378
Original province FEYesYesYes
Industry FENoYesYes
RMSE0.4930.4320.432
Prob > χ20.0000.0000.000
First-stage F statistics8.27321.16515.146
Non-instrumented regressions−0.141** (0.062)−0.072** (0.034)−0.042 (0.042)

Effects of median school fees on the numbers of children brought to the city, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)
Median school fee (Ln)−0.536**(0.227)−0.211**(0.089)−0.205**(0.103)
Observations1,3491,3491,349
Mean of dependent variable0.4580.4580.458
HH’s employment variables and industry FENoYesYes
Growth rate of student–teacher ratioNoYesYes
Housing prices in 2007NoNoYes
RMSE0.4930.4320.432
Prob > χ20.0000.0000.000
First-stage F statistics8.27321.16515.146

Effects of median school fees on the gender of children brought to the city, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)
Median school fee (Ln)−0.417(0.234)*−0.086(0.085)−0.082(0.096)
Observations662662662
Mean of dependent variable0.3770.3770.377
HH’s employment variables and industry FENoYesYes
Growth rate of student–teacher ratioNoYesYes
Housing prices in 2007NoNoYes
RMSE0.4910.4200.420
Prob > χ20.0400.0000.000
First-stage F statistics6.92619.69612.374

Median school fees and child migration during the economic crisis, China 2009

Variable(1)(2)(3)
Median school fee (Ln), (OLS)−0.226***(0.043)−0.148***(0.046)−0.121***(0.044)
Median school fee (Ln), (IV)−0.449***(0.154)−0.440(0.311)−0.408(0.359)
Observations1,0051,0051,005
Mean of dependent variable0.3050.3050.305
HH’s employment variables and industry (FE)NoYesYes
Growth rate of student–teacher ratioNoYesYes
Housing prices in 2008NoNoYes
First-stage F statistics22.3103.3711.605

Child migration and well-being, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)
UnderweightOverweightChild health
Migrated with parent(s)0.023 (0.252)−0.214** (0.105)0.263 (0.292)
Child’s age0.001 (0.007)−0.017*** (0.005)0.002 (0.007)
Child’s gender0.065*** (0.023)−0.020* (0.012)0.038 (0.032)
Head’s age−0.007 (0.006)0.003 (0.002)−0.004 (0.005)
Head is female0.032 (0.044)−0.001 (0.025)−0.062 (0.063)
Head’s height−0.003 (0.003)0.001 (0.001)0.006 (0.004)
Head completed primary school−0.070** (0.028)−0.016 (0.026)0.108*** (0.041)
Head completed middle school0.020 (0.033)−0.000 (0.022)−0.006 (0.039)
Constant1.293*** (0.436)0.220 (0.209)3.298*** (0.780)
Observations1,5561,5561,673
Mean of dependent variable0.5040.0844.339
Original province FEYesYesYes
RMSE0.4950.2870.682
Prob > χ20.0000.0000.000
First-stage F statistics20.90120.90123.231

Alternative measures of school fees and other robustness checks, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)
School feesTuition feesSchool feesSchool fees (’000 yuan)School fees, urban
MedianMedianp25p75MedianMedian
Panel A
    School fees−0.160**(0.068)−0.129**(0.058)−0.167***(0.052)−0.253**(0.118)−0.107**(0.043)−0.094**(0.047)
    Observations1,3491,3491,3491,3491,3491,349
    Mean of dependent variable0.3780.3780.3780.3780.3780.378
    First-stage F statistics15.14615.8078.15011.61013.2567.229

Summary statistics from the RUMiC sample, China 2008

Variable(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)
nMeanSDMaxMin
Household characteristics
    Head’s age1,34936.774.996220
    Head is female1,3490.260.4410
    Head completed primary school1,3490.820.3910
    Head completed middle school1,3490.290.4610
    Head lives with spouse1,3490.650.4810
    Head lives with child1,3490.380.4910
    Number of school-age children living with head1,3490.460.6530
    Migrated within province1,3490.570.5010
    Remittances sent out for educational purposes (’000 yuan)1,3491.102.23180
    Household per capita income (’000 yuan)1,3491.341.01120
    Head is working1,3490.970.1610
    Head is self-employed1,3490.360.4810
Destination city characteristics
    Growth rate of student–teacher ratio1,3491.022.196.56−2.58
    Education spending shocks (HP filter, lagged 1 year)1,349−0.290.931.05−2.66
    Education spending shocks (linear filter, lagged 1 year)1,349−0.461.271.02−3.82
    Education spending shocks (HP filter, lagged 2 years)1,349−0.640.960.39−3.50
    Housing prices in 2007 (’000 yuan)1,3495.602.6213.372.29
    Mean school fees (in migrant sample) (Ln)1,3492475.05887.855720.00954.17
    Median school fees (in migrant sample) (Ln)1,3491758.46699.623130.00650.00
    Coastal city1,3490.470.5010
    Guangzhou1,3490.070.2510
    Dongguan1,3490.050.2210
    Shenzhen1,3490.040.1910
    Shanghai1,3490.110.3110
    Nanjing1,3490.060.2410
    Wuxi1,3490.030.1610
    Hangzhou1,3490.080.2710
    Ningbo1,3490.040.2010
    Zhengzhou1,3490.070.2610
    Luoyang1,3490.040.1910
    Hefei1,3490.090.2910
    Bengbu1,3490.060.2310
    Chongqing1,3490.090.2910
    Wuhan1,3490.080.2710
    Chengdu1,3490.100.3010
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