Smoking as an early risk factor for problematic parenting practices

Demographic characteristics (maternal report)

African American

10.4

14.1^*

Significant at p < .05

Mother married to biological father at interview

70.1

48.0^***

Significant at p < .001

Mother’s education

    Less than high school degree

4.4

15.8^***

Significant at p < .001

    High school degree, no college

35.4

45.2^***

Significant at p < .001

    Some college

29.6

29.6

    College degree or higher

30.7

9.6^***

Significant at p < .001

Household income <$50,000

49.3

71.7^***

Significant at p < .001

Maternal smoking history

Lifetime

    Never

35.5

---

    <100 lifetime

49.0

---

    100+ but quit before twins were born

11.0

---

    100+ but quit when twins were <3 years

4.6

---

    100+ and smoked when twins were 3+ years

Includes N=49 mothers who quit when twins were 3–6 years, N=86 who quit when twins were 7+ years, and N=526 who never quit.

–

100

Smoking during pregnancy (of 100+ lifetime smokers; n=127 who did not smoke and n=637 who smoked when the twins were 3+ years)

    None

71.7

18.5^***

Significant at p < .001

    Smoked during part of pregnancy (1 week to 8 months)

22.8

34.2^*

Significant at p < .05

    Smoked for >8 months of pregnancy

5.5

47.3^***

Significant at p < .001

Maternal report of psychopathology

    Mother self-reported childhood inattention

4.9

9.7^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother self-reported childhood hyperactivity

2.8

4.7^*

Significant at p < .05

    Mother self-reported lifetime depression

26.8

40.0^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother self-reported 3+ alcohol-dependence symptoms lifetime

3.0

7.6^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported biological father was a problem drinker (lifetime)

23.2

41.5^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported twin DSM-IV inattention (in 3000 twins)

A total of 1418 mothers reporting on complete pairs and 164 reporting on only one member of a twin pair; 6+ of 9 DSM-IV inattention symptoms, for 6+ months, before the age of 7, with impairment (causing problems at home or school, or consulted a health professional about problems).

4.5

6.6

    Mother reported twin DSM-IV hyperactivity (in 2998 twins)

A total of 1417 mothers reporting on pairs and 164 reporting on only one member of a twin pair; 6+ of 9 DSM-IV hyperactive symptoms, for 6+ months, before age 7, with impairment (causing problems at home or school, or consulted a health professional about problems).

1.0

4.0^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported twin DSM-IV ODD (in 2988 twins)

As reported by 1580 mothers, with 1408 mothers reporting on pairs and 172 reporting on only one member of a twin pair); 4+ of 8 DSM-IV ODD, for 6+ months, at any age, with impairment (causing problems at home or school, or consulted a health professional about problems).

8.5

16.8^***

Significant at p < .001

Maternal report of parenting (when twins were 6 to 13 years old)

    Mother reported hitting twin with a “belt or stick or something like that”, “sometimes” or “often”

5.2

7.6

    Mother reported being more strict than most parents

51.0

49.0

    Mother reported “often” being interested in the twins’ friends and activities

94.3

87.0^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported being “very close” to the twins

92.6

84.7^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported arguing “often” with the twins

7.4

12.9^***

Significant at p < .001

    Mother reported the coparent hitting twin with a “belt or stick or something like that”, “sometimes” or “often”

N=1264 mothers with a coparent.

3.0

4.5

Twin report of childhood physical and sexual abuse

Twins whose mother did not smoke when they were 3+ years of age (n=1762)

Twins whose mother smoked when they were 3+ years of age (n=1239)

    Twin-reported childhood physical abuse

16.1

23.6^***

Significant at p < .001

    Twin-reported childhood sexual abuse

7.7

14.7^***

Significant at p < .001