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The bilingual gap in children's language, emotional, and pro-social development

Deborah A. Cobb-Clark
Deborah A. Cobb-Clark
, 
Colm Harmon
Colm Harmon
 e 
Anita Staneva
Anita Staneva
   | 29 gen 2021
IZA Journal of Labor Economics's Cover Image
INFORMAZIONI SU QUESTO ARTICOLO
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Pubblicato online: 29 gen 2021
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Accettato: 23 nov 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajole-2021-0001
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© 2021 Deborah A. Cobb-Clark et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

Children's bilingual status over time.Source: The UK MCS. Authors’ calculations are based on a bilingual sample.
Children's bilingual status over time.Source: The UK MCS. Authors’ calculations are based on a bilingual sample.

The effects of bilingualism on language, emotional, and pro-social development – OLS and GMM dynamic estimates

(1) (2) (3)
OLS no past endowments OLS with past endowments System GMM effects
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal Reasoning skills
Bilingualw−1 −0.102*** (0.036) −0.032 (0.031) 0.040 (0.106)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 0.278*** (0.014) 0.602*** (0.218)
z-SDQ scorew−1 −0.092*** (0.013) −0.743** (0.352)
Year dummies Yes Yes Yes
Hansen p-value 0.243
Arellano–Bond test AR(2) p-value 0.152
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Bilingualw−1 −0.006 (0.037) −0.049* (0.027) −0.018 (0.048)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 −0.066*** (0.011) −0.069 (0.093)
z-SDQ scorew−1 0.490*** (0.014) 0.266* (0.155)
Year dummies Yes Yes Yes
Hansen p-value 0.551
Arellano–Bond test AR(2) p-value 0.753
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Bilingualw−1 −0.001 (0.025) 0.014 (0.021) −0.028 (0.033)
z-Pro-social scorew−1 0.343*** (0.019) 0.287* (0.157)
Year dummies Yes Yes Yes
Hansen p-value 0.344
Arellano–Bond test AR(2) p-value 0.238
N (Observations) 6310 6310 6310
N (Individuals) 2269

Probability models to attrite from the sample on verbal, SDQ and pro-social outcomes

(1) (2) (3)
Verbal SDQ Pro-social
Bilingual 0.024 (0.097) 0.065 (0.095) 0.026 (0.091)
z-Verbal reasoning −0.078** (0.037)
z-SDQ −0.010 (0.029)
z-Pro-social 0.036 (0.027)
Child's age 0.023** (0.009) 0.023** (0.009) 0.023*** (0.008)
Male 0.062 (0.054) 0.077 (0.054) 0.100** (0.050)
Mother age −0.011** (0.005) −0.013** (0.005) −0.014*** (0.005)
White 0.158* (0.082) 0.170** (0.079) 0.114 (0.075)
Young migrant 0.019 (0.062) −0.078 (0.061) −0.033 (0.057)
Mother non-English −0.040 (0.081) −0.099 (0.080) −0.037 (0.078)
Father non-English −0.079 (0.081) −0.025 (0.079) −0.064 (0.078)
Married −0.147** (0.072) −0.189*** (0.071) −0.142** (0.067)
Mother with high degree −0.187*** (0.067) −0.213*** (0.066) −0.207*** (0.063)
Father with high degree 0.008 (0.057) 0.058 (0.057) 0.023 (0.052)
Frequency of reading to the child 0.006 (0.024) −0.012 (0.025) 0.002 (0.021)
Frequency of the child being taken to the library −0.004 (0.038) 0.015 (0.037) −0.007 (0.035)
Below 60% of the median UK income −0.069 (0.066) 0.020 (0.066) −0.042 (0.061)
Natural mother presented in Household (HH) 0.292 (0.417) 0.113 (0.476) 0.288 (0.423)
z-Birth weight 0.001 (0.031) 0.033 (0.031) 0.010 (0.028)
Number of siblings −0.000 (0.026) 0.015 (0.026) 0.010 (0.024)
Wald test 68.6 83.71 77.42
Pseudo R2 0.0231 0.0278 0.0218

Baseline summary statistics by attrition by wave 6

Variable Remained Attrited Difference
SDQ 10.17 [5.49] 10.07 [5.56] −0.10 (0.24)
Verbal reasoning 44.83 [12.52] 43.55 [12.34] −1.29*** (0.53)
Male 0.47 [0.50] 0.47 [0.50] 0.01 (0.02)
Mother born non-English 0.58 [0.49] 0.54 [0.50] −0.04* (0.02)
Young migrant 0.6 [0.49] 0.56 [0.50] −0.04* (0.02)
Mother with higher qualification 0.43 [0.50] 0.37 [0.48] −0.06*** (0.02)
Father with higher qualification 0.59 [0.49] 0.62 [0.48] 0.03 (0.02)
Below 60% of the median UK income 0.39 [0.49] 0.44 [0.50] 0.05*** (0.02)

Children who switched bilingual status over the observed period

Stayed bilingual Stayed monolingual Bilingual – wave 2 and moved to monolingual Bilingual – waves 2, 3 and moved to monolingual
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Verbal reasoning 6.43 2.39 7.54 2.69 8.16 2.81 6.75 2.78
SDQ index 14.07 3.87 13.10 3.79 12.20 2.66 13.82 4.01
Pro-social index 8.47 1.83 8.42 1.74 8.62 1.66 8.63 1.80
Male 0.41 0.49 0.48 0.50 0.42 0.50 0.49 0.50
White 0.11 0.31 0.82 0.38 0.62 0.49 0.26 0.44
Mother with high degree 0.34 0.48 0.50 0.50 0.69 0.47 0.44 0.50
Father with high degree 0.55 0.50 0.58 0.49 0.76 0.43 0.67 0.48
Below 60% of the median UK income 0.51 0.50 0.19 0.39 0.13 0.34 0.46 0.50
Young migrant 0.49 0.50 0.80 0.40 0.51 0.51 0.53 0.50
Number of siblings 1.89 1.18 1.49 0.98 1.40 1.03 1.89 1.28
Natural mother – in the family 0.97 0.16 0.98 0.13 1.00 0.00 0.98 0.13
Mother non-English 0.91 0.29 0.24 0.42 0.84 0.37 0.84 0.37
Father non-English 0.87 0.34 0.25 0.43 0.80 0.40 0.84 0.37

Delta: size of proportional selection on unobservable to drive “bilingual” to zero

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Language development
δ 1.18 1.12 −13.29 1.59 3.31
Emotional development
δ 1.50 −0.54 1.29 3.25 3.28
Pro-social behavior
δ −6.39 −5.79 3.87 6.72 −15.79

The effects of bilingualism on language, emotional, and pro-social development – PSM analysis

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal reasoning skills
Multivariate nearest neighbor matching
Bilingualw−1 −0.293*** (0.102) −0.305*** (0.071) 0.164* (0.092) −0.089 (0.063) 0.033 (0.071)
Kernel matching
Bilingualw−1 −0.361** (0.142) −0.503** (0.215) 0.005 (0.093) −0.060 (0.125) 0.045 (0.079)
Inverse probability weighting
Bilingualw−1 −0.374** (0.156) −0.499*** (0.136) 0.073 (0.129) −0.024 (0.142) 0.011 (0.066)
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Multivariate nearest neighbor matching
Bilingualw−1 0.183** (0.093) −0.012 (0.095) 0.024 (0.082) 0.026 (0.091) 0.018 (0.087)
Kernel matching
Bilingualw−1 0.106 (0.128) 0.021 (0.152) 0.084 (0.119) −0.220* (0.125) 0.042 (0.084)
Inverse probability weighting
Bilingualw−1 0.121 (0.171) 0.078 (0.142) 0.177 (0.198) −0.208 (0.127) 0.001 (0.083)
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Multivariate nearest neighbor matching
Bilingualw−1 −0.228** (0.091) −0.010 (0.063) 0.065 (0.067) −0.034 (0.096) −0.041 (0.070)
Kernel matching
Bilingualw−1 −0.294** (0.119) −0.002 (0.214) 0.023 (0.090) −0.122 (0.142) −0.073 (0.092)
Inverse probability weighting
Bilingualw−1 −0.353*** (0.108) −0.071 (0.159) −0.051 (0.155) 0.021 (0.264) −0.062 (0.075)
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361

The effects of bilingualism on language development; the selected coefficient is child's age

z-Verbal reasoning skills
(I) 2–6 Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): OLS with basic controls
Bilingualw−1 −0.629*** (0.053) −0.587*** (0.057) 0.069 (0.059) −0.246*** (0.064) −0.153** (0.059)
R2 0.276 0.187 0.022 0.050 0.033
Panel (B): OLS basic + full controls
Bilingualw−1 −0.352*** (0.062) −0.379*** (0.067) 0.096 (0.071) −0.037 (0.071) −0.077 (0.062)
R2 0.379 0.308 0.111 0.176 0.092
Panel (C): OLS basic + full controls + past endowments
Bilingualw−1 −0.345*** (0.061) −0.199*** (0.062) 0.219*** (0.067) −0.022 (0.068) −0.085 (0.062)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 0.403*** (0.024) 0.294*** (0.025) 0.255*** (0.030) 0.202*** (0.026)
z-SDQ scorew−1 −0.039* (0.021) −0.182*** (0.026) −0.030 (0.028) −0.043 (0.028)
R2 0.394 0.418 0.217 0.233 0.135
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361

The effects of bilingualism on language, emotional, and pro-social development, excluding those who arrived in the UK after 1997 – by child's age

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal reasoning skills
Bilingualw−1 −0.368*** (0.065) −0.172*** (0.066) 0.215*** (0.073) −0.040 (0.072) −0.048 (0.066)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 0.393*** (0.025) 0.298*** (0.027) 0.256*** (0.031) 0.210*** (0.027)
z-SDQ scorew−1 −0.035 (0.022) −0.197*** (0.028) −0.040 (0.030) −0.033 (0.029)
N 1812 1525 1491 1329 1194
R2 0.397 0.402 0.228 0.232 0.141
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Bilingualw−1 0.109 (0.072) −0.100 (0.063) −0.031 (0.056) −0.117* (0.064) 0.029 (0.075)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 −0.040* (0.024) −0.067*** (0.023) −0.100*** (0.025) −0.022 (0.032)
z-SDQ score w−1 0.502*** (0.026) 0.565*** (0.025) 0.547*** (0.026) 0.520*** (0.033)
N 1812 1525 1491 1329 1194
R2 0.187 0.365 0.430 0.410 0.309
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Bilingualw−1 −0.051 (0.076) −0.014 (0.079) −0.004 (0.068) 0.070 (0.077) 0.112 (0.068)
z-Pro-social scorew−1 0.311*** (0.027) 0.411*** (0.027) 0.354*** (0.034) 0.399*** (0.034)
N 1812 1525 1491 1329 1194
R2 0.065 0.153 0.228 0.211 0.266

The effects of bilingualism on pro-social development; the selected coefficient is child's age

z-Pro-social score
(l) 2–6 Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): OLS with basic controls
Bilingualw−1 −0.114** (0.058) 0.051 (0.062) −0.014 (0.060) −0.070 (0.070) −0.048 (0.070)
R2 0.020 0.034 0.021 0.023 0.028
Panel (B): OLS basic + full controls
Bilingualw−1 −0.089 (0.072) 0.065 (0.086) 0.035 (0.070) 0.014 (0.081) −0.030 (0.073)
R2 0.053 0.055 0.049 0.046 0.048
Panel (C): OLS basic + full controls + past endowments
Bilingualw−1 −0.088 (0.071) −0.002 (0.078) 0.039 (0.063) 0.071 (0.075) 0.004 (0.066)
z-Pro-social scorew−1 0.306*** (0.026) 0.399*** (0.026) 0.395*** (0.032) 0.414*** (0.030)
R2 0.062 0.148 0.225 0.183 0.231
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361

Summary statistics of selected variables

Monolingual Bilingual Difference
Outcomes
Language development (verbal reasoning skills)
Age 3 50.42 [10.68] 38.87 [11.30] −11.55***
Age 5 55.1 [10.69] 43.95 [11.65] −11.15***
Age 7 115.47 [18.07] 114.88 [17.35] −0.59
Age 11 60.15 [9.70] 56.98 [10.60] −3.17***
Age 14 6.98 [3.38] 6.1 [2.80] −0.88***
Emotional development (SDQ score)
Age 3 9.11 [5.00] 11.18 [5.88] 2.07***
Age 5 6.89 [4.60] 8.49 [5.29] 1.61***
Age 7 6.87 [5.02] 8.26 [5.20] 1.39***
Age 11 7.07 [5.37] 7.71 [5.25] 0.64**
Age 14 13.3 [3.89] 14.35 [4.33] 1.05***
Pro–social development
Age 3 7.40 [1.87] 7.46 [1.99] 0.06
Age 5 8.42 [1.66] 8.27 [1.80] −0.15**
Age 7 8.63 [1.60] 8.46 [1.74] −0.17**
Age 11 8.77 [5.37] 8.69 [1.63] −0.08
Age 14 8.32 [3.89] 8.25 [1.95] −0.08
Time–varying controls
Child's age in months
Age 3 37.62 [2.34] 38.24 [3.21] 0.62***
Age 5 62.67 [2.84] 62.63 [2.83] −0.04
Age 7 86.96 [2.84] 87.12 [2.85] 0.16
Age 11 128.06 [5.68] 127.97 [5.74] −0.09
Age 14 165.06 [5.42] 165.11 [5.45] 0.05
Below 60% of the median UK income
Age 3 0.29 [0.45] 0.54 [0.50] 0.25***
Age 5 0.27 [0.45] 0.57 [0.50] 0.30***
Age 7 0.26 [0.44] 0.55 [0.50] 0.29***
Age 11 0.28 [0.45] 0.56 [0.50] 0.28***
9 months: Gross motor delay 0.11 [0.32] 0.14 [0.35] 0.03*
9 months: Fine motor delay 0.12 [0.33] 0.14 [0.35] 0.02
9 months: Communication gesture delay 0.41 [0.49] 0.43 [0.50] 0.03
Parental inputs
9 months: Importance of stimulating the baby 0.36 [0.57] 0.58 [0.67] 0.22***
9 months: Importance of talking to the baby 0.15 [0.38] 0.31 [0.53] 0.16***
9 months: Importance of cuddling the baby 0.12 [0.34] 0.24 [0.51] 0.13***
9 months: Importance of regular sleep/feeding time 0.59 [0.75] 0.75 [0.82] 0.16***
Age 3: Frequency of the child being taken to the library 0.56 [0.78] 0.41 [0.73] −0.15***
Age 3: Frequency reading to the child 3.31 [0.98] 2.67 [1.34] −0.63***
Age 5: Frequency of the child being taken to the library 0.73 [0.67] 0.68 [0.72] −0.05*
Age 5: Frequency reading to the child 2.45 [0.63] 2.31 [0.75] −0.14***
Age 7: Frequency of the child being taken to the library 0.75 [0.66] 0.8 [0.72] 0.05
Age 7: Frequency reading to the child 2.11 [1.59] 2.36 [1.45] 0.26***
Time invariant controls
Male 0.52 [0.50] 0.5 [0.50] −0.02
Birth weight 1.23 [0.75] 1.71 [1.05] 0.48***
Young migrant 0.77 [0.42] 0.52 [0.50] −0.24***
Mother born non–English country 0.26 [0.44] 0.88 [0.33] 0.62***
Father born non–English country 0.27 [0.44] 0.88 [0.33] 0.61***
Child is white 0.72 [0.45] 0.12 [0.33] −0.60***
Mother with higher qualification 0.43 [0.50] 0.32 [0.47] −0.11***
Father with higher qualification 0.59 [0.49] 0.57 [0.50] −0.01

Heterogeneous effects of bilingualism, by children's gender

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal Reasoning skills
Boys
Bilingualw−1 −0.320*** (0.085) −0.207** (0.090) 0.242** (0.110) 0.090 (0.101) −0.200** (0.094)
N 1012 840 832 731 662
R2 0.381 0.425 0.227 0.223 0.157
Girls
Bilingualw−1 −0.352*** (0.087) −0.179** (0.084) 0.148* (0.085) −0.155* (0.089) 0.007 (0.083)
N 981 842 861.000 773 699
R2 0.424 0.440 0.224 0.268 0.132
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Boys
Bilingualw−1 0.145 (0.096) −0.165* (0.092) −0.060 (0.080) −0.187** (0.088) −0.076 (0.105)
N 1012 840 832 731 662
R2 0.175 0.357 0.442 0.427 0.323
Girls
Bilingualw−1 0.093 (0.100) −0.041 (0.080) −0.005 (0.074) −0.009 (0.082) 0.124 (0.097)
N 981 842 861 773 699
R2 0.201 0.356 0.409 0.358 0.261
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Boys
Bilingualw−1 −0.126 (0.102) 0.092 (0.122) 0.006 (0.099) −0.001 (0.108) 0.069 (0.098)
N 1012 840 832 731 662
R2 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.187 0.256
Girls
Bilingualw−1 −0.021 (0.102) −0.093 (0.101) 0.076 (0.078) 0.184* (0.103) 0.099 (0.083)
N 981 842 861 773 699
R2 0.067 0.153 0.256 0.192 0.217

Heterogeneous effects of bilingualism, by mother's level of education

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal reasoning skills
Mother's education – “High”
Bilingualw−1 −0.430*** (0.152) −0.205 (0.132) −0.132 (0.126) −0.061 (0.147) −0.270 (0.223)
N 339 310 286 267 241
R2 0.365 0.318 0.248 0.194 0.248
Mother's education – A-level and below
Bilingualw−1 −0.328*** (0.067) −0.200*** (0.071) 0.279*** (0.078) −0.018 (0.079) 0.019 (0.063)
N 1654 1372 1407 1237 1120
R2 0.376 0.414 0.217 0.22 0.118
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Mother's education – “High”
Bilingualw−1 −0.025 (0.144) −0.080 (0.116) 0.083 (0.101) 0.100 (0.126) 0.023 (0.188)
N 339 310 286 267 241
R2 0.199 0.455 0.45 0.459 0.248
Mother's education – A-level and below
Bilingualw−1 0.128* (0.076) −0.105 (0.071) −0.056 (0.063) −0.135** (0.068) 0.065 (0.075)
N 1654 1372 1407 1237 1120
R2 0.161 0.343 0.404 0.377 0.276
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Mother's education – “High”
Bilingualw−1 0.404** (0.187) 0.016 (0.146) −0.022 (0.127) −0.059 (0.148) −0.216 (0.191)
N 339 310 286 267 241
R2 0.121 0.27 0.424 0.382 0.389
Mother's education – A-level and below
Bilingualw−1 −0.177** (0.078) −0.006 (0.092) 0.044 (0.074) 0.084 (0.086) 0.110 (0.067)
N 1654 1372 1407 1237 1120
R2 0.069 0.143 0.227 0.171 0.221

The effects of bilingualism on language, emotional, and pro-social development, excluding native-born parents – by child's age

Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): Outcome: z-Verbal reasoning skills
Bilingualw−1 −0.320*** (0.065) −0.203*** (0.070) 0.237*** (0.071) −0.012 (0.074) −0.087 (0.063)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 0.441*** (0.030) 0.317*** (0.029) 0.290*** (0.037) 0.192*** (0.030)
z-SDQ scorew−1 −0.053** (0.025) −0.143*** (0.028) 0.007 (0.034) −0.064** (0.031)
N 1386 1148 1191 1058 986
R2 0.375 0.422 0.225 0.272 0.139
Panel (B): Outcome: z-SDQ score
Bilingualw−1 0.117 (0.074) −0.103 (0.069) −0.052 (0.058) −0.028 (0.064) 0.008 (0.073)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw−1 −0.049* (0.030) −0.042 (0.026) −0.119*** (0.029) −0.014 (0.038)
z-SDQ scorew−1 0.491*** (0.032) 0.506*** (0.027) 0.481*** (0.029) 0.458*** (0.037)
N 1386 1148 1191 1058 986
R2 0.174 0.349 0.395 0.353 0.250
Panel (C): Outcome: z-Pro-social score
Bilingualw−1 −0.121 (0.077) −0.017 (0.089) 0.074 (0.066) 0.043 (0.081) 0.046 (0.064)
z-Pro-social scorew−1 0.275*** (0.031) 0.365*** (0.032) 0.270*** (0.041) 0.354*** (0.036)
N 1386 1148 1191 1058 986
R2 0.059 0.133 0.192 0.171 0.234

Bilingual mother's behavior, well-being, and home inputs, by child's age

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Time spent with child Frequency of reading Good relationship with partner Depressive symptoms Life Mother
Age 9 months
Bilingual motherw−1 0.082** (0.032) −0.069*** (0.025) 0.231* (0.133) −0.041 (0.032)
N 3035 3035 3035 3035
Age 3
Bilingual motherw−1 0.074*** (0.028) 0.174*** (0.067) 0.093** (0.041) −0.112*** (0.030) 0.329** (0.151) −0.051 (0.034)
N 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993 1993
Age 5
Bilingual motherw−1 0.097*** (0.035) 0.039 (0.069) 0.085** (0.039) −0.053*** (0.019) 0.501*** (0.163) −0.061* (0.034)
N 1682 1682 1682 1682 1682 1682
Age 7
Bilingual motherw−1 0.074** (0.032) 0.318*** (0.115) −0.001 (0.015) 0.265* (0.138) −0.053 (0.034)
N 1693 1693 1693 1693 1693
Age 11
Bilingual motherw−1 0.024 (0.044) 0.029 (0.021) 0.267* (0.152) −0.168*** (0.029)
N 1504 1504 1504 1504
Age 14
Bilingual motherw−1 −0.021 (0.031) 0.359* (0.186) −0.191*** (0.031)
N 1361 1361 1361

The effects of bilingualism on emotional development; the selected coefficient is child's age

z-SDQ score
(I) 2–6 Age 3 Age 5 Age 7 Age 11 Age 14
Panel (A): OLS with basic controls
Bilingualw−1 0.219*** (0.058) 0.055 (0.057) 0.091 (0.056) 0.049 (0.065) 0.081 (0.072)
R2 0.086 0.067 0.055 0.023 0.022
Panel (B): OLS basic + full controls
Bilingualw−1 0.109 (0.069) −0.049 (0.073) −0.031 (0.066) −0.056 (0.072) −0.038 (0.078)
R2 0.165 0.126 0.118 0.083 0.084
Panel (C): OLS basic + full controls + past endowments
Bilingualw−1 0.105 (0.068) −0.106* (0.061) −0.043 (0.054) −0.095 (0.060) 0.006 (0.071)
z-Verbal reasoning skillsw −1 −0.033 (0.023) −0.047** (0.022) −0.110*** (0.024) −0.016 (0.032)
z-SDQ scorew−1 0.493*** (0.025) 0.561*** (0.023) 0.520*** (0.025) 0.494*** (0.031)
R2 0.175 0.354 0.420 0.386 0.276
N 1993 1682 1693 1504 1361
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Business and Economics, Political Economics, Microeconomics, Macroecomics, Economic Policy, Mathematics and Statistics for Economists, Econometrics
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