Landslide displacements can occur with a very broad range of velocities, from catastrophic movements (
Various methods have been tried to monitor slow movements of landslide bodies. These include satellite monitoring (Peyret
Trees are very sensitive indicators of landsliding. They can be tilted even during very slight ground movements (Malik and Wistuba, 2012) and, after tilting, develop eccentric annual rings which help us to date landsliding events (Braam
In natural environmental conditions in Central Europe spruce stands can reach the age of 200–300 years, therefore dendrochronological reconstructions of landslide activity in the last few tens to hundreds of years are possible. Dendrochronological methods provide annual resolution of data of high accuracy due to the seasonal pattern of tree growth. Since the tree stands usually cover large areas results even for whole mountain massifs and ranges can be obtained. Eccentricity indicex of Norway spruce growth was developed to date landslide activity through the comparison with reference trees growing on neighbouring landslide-free slopes (Wistuba
The aim of this study is to show how the dendrogeomorphological method can be employed to detect slow ground displacements and reveal the activity status of apparently relict landslides. The area chosen is the Kamienne Mountains, in south-west Poland, where many hillslopes show clear geomorphic signatures of landslides, but no surface displacements have been reported or described in historical times,
The study area is located in the Kamienne (Stone) Mountains, a range in the centre of the Sudetes Mountains, Central Europe (Fig. 2a). This area is known for the widespread occurrence of landslide-affected terrain, apparently of different ages (Migoń
The area chosen for the detailed study embraces the east-central part of the Kamienne Mountains, which is also the highest part of the range and culminating in Mt Waligóra (936 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 2b). The terrain is considerably dissected, with V-shaped valleys separating long sinuous ridges and steep-sided conical hills. Very little planar relief is present along water divides. Mean slope angles fall within the range of 20–40°, and locally thin regolith-covered slopes are as steep as 60°. Except for footslope settings, slopes in the area carry a rather shallow regolith cover, less than 2 m thick (Migoń
The Kamienne Mountains are situated in the humid temperate zone, with a mean annual temperature around 5.5°C. Mean annual precipitation at the nearby weather station in Mieroszów operated by the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management in Wrocław (IMGW), was 776 mm in the period 1977–2007, although the amount of rainfall varied considerably from year to year. For example, values as low as 534 mm in 1982 and as high as 977 mm in 2007 were recorded. Within the 30-year period of observations, the monthly rainfall in summer (May September) exceeded 100 mm in 36 instances, occasionally rising above 250 mm. An absolute monthly maximum was recorded in July 1997 (344 mm). The station in Mieroszów (located 2 km from the Garbatka landslide, 5 and 7 km from Suchawa and Turzyna landslides) as
Natural vegetation in the Kamienne Mountains is a mixed forest, with European beech (
Detailed studies of Norway spruce response to ground instability were carried out at three locations, named here after as Suchawa, Turzyna, and Garbatka, from the name of the nearest mountain peakes. Each site exhibits different geomorphic signatures of landslide activity. In every case, Norway spruce forest stands grow on all the landslide-affected slopes.
Mt Suchawa (928 m a.s.l.; Fig. 2b) the second highest peak in the Kamienne Mountains, overlook the deep Sokołowiec valley to the north. Local relief attains 300 m, while terrain inclinations vary from 30–40° on the upper slope to less than 10° near the footslope, although with much local diversity. The summit and the upper slopes of Mt Suchawa are built of densely jointed rhyolites, with joint spacing usually in the order of 15–20 cm, but locally as low as 5 cm. The thickness of the rhyolite body is estimated as
The northern slopes of Mt Suchawa host one of the most extensive and complex landslides in the range extending more than 0.5 km across the slope (Fig. 3a). The whole landslide assemblage is crowned by a distinctive head scarp more than 40 m high and occupies the altitude belt 880–680 m a.s.l. A few separate types of displacement have been distinguished within the complex through landform analysis, and different ages have been proposed on the basis of evident differences in soil development and characteristics (Kacprzak
Extensive slope collapse has occurred on the western side of the mountain, leaving an arcuate rock scarp that feeds an active scree slope (Remisz
The morphology of the eastern side (Fig. 3a) of the complex suggests a different mechanism of movement. A series of benches elongated across the slope, with inclinations varying from 3–15° to 25–40°, is consistent with multiple rotational sliding of rigid rhyolite blocks on the deformable sedimentary substratum. As many as five rotated blocks occur along some slope transects. The area selected for dendrochronological study is located within the eastern part of the Suchawa landslide complex, while the reference slope is located on the opposite side of the Sokołowiec valley, on a steep but otherwise smooth slope, with no signs of deep-seated displacements.
Mt Turzyna (898 m a.s.l.) is one of the local peaks formed from a trachyandesite sill intruded into sedimentary rocks. The sill dips to the south with this accounting for the overall asymmetry of the ridge, with a low angle (less than 10°) southern slope and a very steep (30–50°) northern slope (Fig. 3b). The northern slope of Mt Turzyna terminates in a basal convexity at 690–720 m a.s.l., dissected by a series of parallel gullies each a few metres deep. The most conspicuous geomorphic feature of Mt Turzyna is a ridge-parallel bench near the summit, backed by a north-facing trachyandesite scarp up to 10 m high. The bench itself is 30–40 m wide and essentially flat, extending for nearly 400 m across the slope. The slope below the bench lacks a clear pattern of minor landforms and is rather monotonous, with occasional outcrops of jointed trachyandesite. Towards the east, the nearsummit scarp increases in height, to 20 m, and the bench disappears, whereas a poorly defined series of terrain steps occurs below.
An initial interpretation of the northern slopes of Mt Turzyna as landslide-affected (Berg
A dendrogeomorphological study was carried out on the western side of the landslide-affected slopes of Mt Turzyna, within the section of the landslide interpreted as being at an early stage of development.
The landslide terrain on the northern slopes of Mt Garbatka (797 m a.s.l.) differs from those previously described in terms of surface morphology and, apparently, origin (Fig. 3c). Here, the bulk of mass movement occurred within a broad valley floor and the most likely mechanism was a flowslide initiated by a shallow translational slide at the valley head which left a shallow slope hollow (Migoń
Subdued surface morphology, the absence of any distinct toe, and the presence of well developed soils within the landslide terrain suggest a considerable age of the main phase of mass movement on the slopes of Mt Garbatka (Migoń
In order to conduct dendrochronological studies we sampled 140 cores from 70 Norway spruce trees, with two samples taken from each tree using a Pressler borer. Cores were taken at breast height along an axis parallel to the slope inclination or along the main axis of the stem (where there was evident eccentricity). This procedure enabled us to obtain tree-ring data from the upslope and downslope sides of each stem.
Only trees without visible loss in assimilation apparatus or stem injuries were sampled. There were 36 trees sampled on the Suchawa landslide, 13 on the Turzyna landslide, and 21 on the Garbatka landslide (Fig. 3). Since at each site we cored all trees suitable for dendrochronological sampling, the populations from each locality are dissimilar. The cores obtained were glued onto wooden holders and polished using sanding paper grades 100, 280, 500 and 1000, in sequence. Once the ring structures were clear, the tree-ring widths in each core were measured to 0.01 mm precision using LinTab measuring equipment with TSAPWin Professional 4.65 software. Skeleton plotting was used to reveal missing and wedging rings.
In addition, 60 samples from 30 Norway spruce trees were cored at three reference sites, 10 trees per site (Fig. 3). Reference sites were selected near the landslideaffected slopes, following the principle that environmental conditions (altitude, slope inclination, aspect, bedrock) are likely to be closely similar to the landslide slopes, yet without any geomorphic mass movement signatures, whether contemporary or relict. Reference cores were sampled and analysed in the same way as the cores taken from the landslide terrains.
The annual ring widths from each tree measured and their up and down-slope ring widths compared: percent eccentricity index and its yearly variations were calculated, based on the formula given in Fig. 4. Comparison with the samples from the reference sites allowed us to determine eccentricity threshold values,
Finally, the results of dendrochronological dating were compared with the rainfall record from Mieroszów weather station during the growing seasons (April to September), 1977–2007. To describe the relationship between dendrochronological events, interpreted as resultant from ground displacement, and precipitation record correlation coefficients have been calculated for data sets describing the number of eccentricity ‘events’ in each year in 1977–2007 — Fig. 5b, Fig. 6b, Fig. 7b) and precipitation pattern (for annual and April-September totals; Fig. 5a, Fig. 6a, Fig. 7a). Six coefficients, two for each study site, were obtained.
The oldest trees were sampled from the Suchawa landslide, trees from the other two landslide localities are younger. Thus, the following periods are fully covered by tree-ring data: 1944–2010 on the Suchawa landslide, 1952–2011 on the Turzyna landslide and 1952–2010 on the Garbatka landslide (Table 1). Dendrochronological data for the 70-year long period 1940–2010 were subjected to further analysis.
Sample numbers, age of the oldest tree, the youngest tree and average age of trees sampled on all sites studied.
landslide / study site | number of trees sampled | sample depth the oldest ring in samples taken | avg. number of ring in cores sampled | age of the youngest sampled tree |
---|---|---|---|---|
Suchawa | 36 | 1787 | 91 | 1944 |
Suchawa reference site | 10 | 1933 | 74 | 1949 |
Turzyna | 13 | 1914 | 75 | 1952 |
Turzyna reference site | 10 | 1919 | 73 | 1951 |
Garbatka | 21 | 1940 | 66 | 1952 |
Garbatka reference site | 10 | 1939 | 58 | 1970 |
Threshold values for the yearly variation index were separately established for each locality, based on data from the reference slopes. At the Suchawa landslide values for upslope eccentricity >59.39% and for downslope eccentricity <–64.35% were considered as evidence of ground instability. At the Turzyna landslide the respective values are >58.96% for upslope eccentricity and <–64.86% for downslope eccentricity. Finally, at the Garbatka landslide an upslope eccentricity value of >56.52% and downslope eccentricity value of <–51.40% were included for further analysis. The lower threshold values at the Garbatka site reflect the less inclined slopes compared with the other two sites.
Within the 1940–2010 period, 36 trees showed 262 disturbance eccentricity ‘events’, with upslope eccentricity predominating (68%, Fig. 5c). The number of trees affected varied from year to year. In certain years nearly 20 per cent of the trees were affected, although in most years the percentage did not exceed 15% (Fig. 8b). The highest value was noted in 2009 (reaction of 13 trees,
At the Turzyna landslide site, 121 eccentricity ‘events’ were recognized in the dataset. As in the previous case, the dominance of upslope eccentricity is evident (88%, Fig. 6c). While in 11 years within the 1940–2011 record no instances of growth disturbance above the predetermined threshold values were found, the percentage of trees affected is higher than at the Suchawa site. In certain years nearly 50 per cent of trees recorded eccentricity ‘events’ with the relatively large percentages characterizing the years 1960, 1974, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1984, 1996, and 2007, with at least four (
At the Garbatka locality (N = 21), 140 instances of growth disturbance in the form of anomalously high eccentricity were recorded, with upslope eccentricity dominating (71%, Fig. 7c). There was no evidence of any above-threshold disturbance in the 16 years out of 70 covered by the record. The highest frequency of eccentricity ‘events’ was noted in 1989 (six trees,
At each of the three landslides eccentricity ‘events’ during the last 70 years have been frequent and have occurred almost every year. Among them, upslope eccentricity clearly predominates (68–88%), meaning that tree stems tend to lean upslope, parallel to the slope. Malik and Wistuba (2012) found that such a pattern of stem behaviour is typical for slopes formed by landsliding and, by inference, ground deformation revealed by growth eccentricity in the Kamienne Mountains is interpreted as the consequence of ongoing sliding along a shear surface rather than an effect of superficial processes such as soil creep, flow, or surface wash acting on the stable surface of an old landslide.
Despite the predominance of up-slope eccentricity, there is a notable difference between the Turzyna site and the other two. At Turzyna the percentage of trees leaning downslope is markedly lower (12%) than at the two other sites (29 and 32%), probably due to the morphology of the landslide terrain. At Mt Turzyna, sampled trees grow on the subsided block whose upper surface is sloping north at a very low angle (landslide at an early stage of development according to Synowiec (2003), whereas at the other two sites the terrain is steeper and the relief is more complex. At the Suchawa landslide in particular, flat benches and steep scarps alternate and it is on the latter, sloping by as much as 30° or more, where downslope tree tilting is common. This pattern is consistent with the findings of Braam
The rates of displacement recorded by dendrochronological events is likely to be low. Since neither historical accounts nor geomorphic evidence suggest any acceleration of mass movement within the landslide terrain in the Kamienne Mountains in recent times. Possible analogues are slow-moving landslides, where the mean annual rate of movement is from less than 1 mm (Klimeš
Dendrochronological events of landsliding at the three sites, show little between-site relationship (Fig. 8). Nevertheless, there are years and sub-decadal intervals, during which a relatively high frequency of events occur suggesting ground displacement at a larger scale, involving more extensive areas.
Prior to 1977, since the rainfall record began, common elevated levels of geomorphic activity are only evident in 1965–1966, at the Suchawa and Garbatka sites. At the former site, further years of apparently increasing activity are 1955 and 1976 and at Mt Garbatka 1970– 1972. In subsequent years, 1974–1984) stand out at all localities, as well as 1995–1998, although this is rather poorly visible in the record from Mt Turzyna. Isolated years of enhanced activity, although with no parallels at other localities, are 1986 and 1988 at Mt Suchawa and 1989 at Mt Garbatka. In recent times, the interval 2006– 2009 is again characterized by a higher frequency of growth disturbance events but individual records for separate sites do not match (Fig. 8). However, at Mt Turzyna both the sample size (N = 13) and the sample area are small and therefore the evidence for slope movement should be interpreted with caution.
Comparison of the rainfall records with the dendrochronological record for the three landslides reveals that in years of increasing activity correspond with higher than average April to September precipitation amounts (Figs. 5, 6, 7). At the Suchawa landslide such coincidences occurred in 1980, 1995, 1998, and 2007, whereas at the Turzyna landslide activity years are 1984, 1996, and 2007. However, other years or periods of high April-September precipitation such as 1977, 2001, and 2005– 2006 are uncorrelated with an increasing frequency of dendrochronological events. Therefore, for the entire period covered by the rainfall record the comparison of dendrochronological results from the Turzyna and Suchawa landslides with April-September precipitation shows very poor correlation (0.03, 0.04 respectively: Table 2).
Correlation coefficients for activity of Suchawa, Turzyna and Garbatka landslides and precipitation 1977–2007 (yearly totals and April to September totals)
Suchawa landslide | Turzyna landslide | Garbatka landslide | |
---|---|---|---|
annual precipitation total | 0.11 | 0.18 | 0.25 |
precipitation totals April-September | –0.03 | 0.04 | 0.53 |
Elsewhere, deep-seated rotational landslides, similar to studied localities, have been coupled with long-term seasonal rainfall patterns (> 30 days) (
By contrast, on the gentler slopes of the Garbatka landslide the correlation between the number of dendrochronological events and seasonal precipitation is much higher (0.53) (Table 2). Thus, all four years on record with five events recorded (1977, 1979, 1984, 1997) correspond with spring-summer rainfall above the long-term average (Fig. 8). Furthermore, four out of six years typified by the number of events n = 4 match rainy years. However, the year with most slope activity (1989) was not particularly wet
In terms of origin and mechanism of movement the landslide at Mt Garbatka is significantly different from the other two examples. The landform assemblage indicates that the primary mechanism was a flowslide and the geophysical survey showed that the basal detachment surface is at most 10 m below the surface (Migoń
Shallow landslides, like Garbatka slide, according to Zêzere
There are further differences between the nature of dendrochronological events at the study sites, consistent with the different movement mechanisms and their relationships with rainfall patterns. Trees growing on the Garbatka landslide record ground instability through large, sudden jumps (increases for upslope and decreases for downslope tilting) in the value of eccentricity index. Later on, index values return to the previous low level over similarly brief periods (Fig. 4b). These jumps at the Garbatka landslide can be interpreted as episodic activity typified by short-term displacement accelerations, abruptly suppressed afterwards. The opposite patterns are identified for the Suchawa and Turzyna landslides where high levels of eccentricity lasting for longer, suggesting slow but more continuous movement.
The above analysis provides a basis for an attempt to infer the amount of seasonal rainfall in the period prior to the opening of the Mieroszów precipitation gauging station. Higher frequencies of tree growth disturbance ‘events’ at the Garbatka landslide were recorded in 1965 and 1970–72, suggesting rainfall higher than average in these years. Poor correlation between dendrochronological events and precipitation at the other two sites does not really allow for similar inferences. Nevertheless, it is notable that both the Suchawa and Turzyna landslides clearly showed an increasing level of activity in 1976, as well as in the consecutive years 1954–55 and 1965–66. However, the dendrochronological record from the Garbatka landslide does not show any corresponding increasing disturbance.
While analysing the relationships between dendrochronological events of landslides and the rainfall totals one should not overlook limitations imposed by the nature of the rainfall record itself. First, only monthly totals were available and possible episodic cloudbursts cannot be inferred from the dataset. While it is unlikely that cloudbursts would have had a significant effect on deepseated landslides, their effect on the shallow Garbatka flowslide would remain undetected even if present. Second, although the Mieroszów station is close to the landslide sites, it is nevertheless 4 km from Garbatka, 6 km from Suchawa and 8 km from Turzyna. Starkel (2012) has recently showed the sensitivity of rainfall records to increasing distance from sites of maximum rainfall during a cloudburst in a mountain area. Third, there may be an effect of altitude and topography in that the landslide sites are 150–300 m upslope, within a mountain range, compared with the town of Mieroszów located in an intramontane basin.
Precipitation is not the only known trigger of landsliding. Seismic activity is another mechanism for landslide initiation and reactivation (Keefer, 1984; Koi
Dendrochronological studies suggest that the three landslides under study, despite their apparent stability and the absence of any historical records of activity, remain active and currently belong to a group of slow-moving landslides. The morphology of slopes is transformed by continuous minor sliding, recorded by trees almost every year. Slope material is transported at slow rates and most probably over very short distances.
Ground displacements are recorded mostly by upslope eccentricity developed in spruce stems tilted upslope, with this especially well visible on the deep-seated Turzyna site where rotational sliding is at an early stage and trees are mostly tilted upslope. Where landslide relief is better developed, on the studied slopes of Mt Suchawa and Mt Garbatka, relatively more trees are tilted downslope.
Slow landsliding occurs more or less synchronously on all three studied slopes, although with variable intensity. In certain years it affects more extensive parts of slopes, but more often ground movement occurs locally, in limited areas and at different intensities.
Correlation of the dendrochronological record with the rainfall record from a nearby station in Mieroszów 1977–2007 is very poor for two deep-seated rotational slides at Mt Suchawa and Mt Turzyna but considerably better for the shallow flowslide at Mt Garbatka. This may reflect higher permeability of heavily jointed rocks involved in deep-seated sliding but may also be linked to imperfections in the rainfall record itself. The temporal coincidence of dendrochronological events and higher rainfall at Mt Garbatka is maybe consistent with the flowslide origin of the landslide and indicates shorter response times to atmospheric events.
The dendrochronological method of tree-ring eccentricity analysis applied in this paper appears to be an efficient tool in detecting minor landslide movements. It is possible that the approach would also prove efficient in detecting minor, preparatory movements which might precede catastrophic events and as such, would become a component of early warning system. Therefore, it should be an object of further studies.