Off-Shore and On-Shore Macroalgae Cultivation and Wild Harvesting: an LCA-Based Evaluation from Baltic Sea Region Case Studies

[1] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. Rome: FAO, 2022. Search in Google Scholar

[2] Torres M. D., Kraan S., Domínguez H. Seaweed biorefinery. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology 2019:18(2):335–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-019-09496-y Search in Google Scholar

[3] Michalak I., Chojnacka K. Seaweeds as a Component of the Human Diet. Algae Biomass: Characteristics and Applications 2018:57–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74703-3_6 Search in Google Scholar

[4] Singh C. B., et al. Fortification of Extruded Product with Brown Seaweed (Sargassum tenerrimum) and Its Process Optimization by Response Surface Methodology. Waste Biomass Valorization 2018:9(5):755–764. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12649-017-9831-2 Search in Google Scholar

[5] Thomas N. V., Kim S. K. Beneficial Effects of Marine Algal Compounds in Cosmeceuticals. Marine Drugs 2013:11(1):146–164. https://doi.org/10.3390/MD11010146 Search in Google Scholar

[6] Abdelwahab R. Therapeutic and Pharmaceutical Application of Seaweeds. Biotechnological Applications of Seaweeds. NY, USA: Nova Science Publisher, 2017. Search in Google Scholar

[7] mac Monagail M., Morrison L. The seaweed resources of Ireland: a twenty-first century perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology 2020:32(2):1287–1300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02067-7 Search in Google Scholar

[8] mac Monagail M., et al. Sustainable harvesting of wild seaweed resources. European Journal of Phycology 2017:52(4):371–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/09670262.2017.1365273 Search in Google Scholar

[9] Andersen R. A. Algal Culturing Techniques. 1st Edition. Elsevier, 2004. Search in Google Scholar

[10] McLachlan J. L. General principles of on-shore cultivation of seaweeds: effects of light on production. Hydrobiologia 1991:221(1):125–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00028369 Search in Google Scholar

[11] Zertuche-González J. A., et al. Seasonal and interannual production of sea lettuce (Ulva sp.) in outdoor cultures based on commercial size ponds. World Aquaculture Society 2021:52(5):1047–1058. https://doi.org/10.1111/JWAS.12773 Search in Google Scholar

[12] Vinuganesh A., et al. Seasonal Changes in the Biochemical Constituents of Green Seaweed Chaetomorpha antennina from Covelong, India. Biomolecules 2022:12(10):1475. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12101475 Search in Google Scholar

[13] Teresa M., Gómez C., Lähteenmäki-Uutela A. European and National Regulations on Seaweed Cultivation and Harvesting. Helsinki, 2021. Search in Google Scholar

[14] Marine Scotland Directorate. Effects of Harvesting on Ecological Function. Wild seaweed harvesting: strategic environmental assessment - environmental report. Edinburgh: Scottish Government, 2016. Search in Google Scholar

[15] Hafting J. T. et al. Prospects and challenges for industrial production of seaweed bioactives. J Phycol 2015:51(5):821–837. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpy.12326 Search in Google Scholar

[16] García-Poza S., et al. The evolution road of seaweed aquaculture: Cultivation technologies and the industry 4.0. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2020:17(18):1–42. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186528 Search in Google Scholar

[17] Hafting J. T., Critchley A. T., Cornish M. L., Hubley S. A., Archibald A. F. On-land cultivation of functional seaweed products for human usage. J Appl Phycol 2012:24(3):385–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-011-9720-1 Search in Google Scholar

[18] ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines. International Organization for Standardization. International Organization for Standardization, 2006. [Online]. [Accessed: 02.01.2023]. Available: https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:14044:ed-1:v1:en Search in Google Scholar

[19] ISO. ISO 14044:2006 – Environmental management — Life cycle assessment — Requirements and guidelines. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization, 2006. Search in Google Scholar

[20] Oirschot R. van, Thomas J. B. E., Gröndahl F., Fortuin K. P. J., Brandenburg W., Potting J. Explorative environmental life cycle assessment for system design of seaweed cultivation and drying. Algal Res 2017:27:43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2017.07.025 Search in Google Scholar

[21] Taelman S. E., et al. Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of two seaweed cultivation systems in North West Europe with a focus on quantifying sea surface occupation. Algal Research 2015:11:173–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2015.06.018 Search in Google Scholar

[22] Thomas J. B. E., et al. A comparative environmental life cycle assessment of hatchery, cultivation, and preservation of the kelp Saccharina latissimi. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2021:78(1):451–467. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsaa112 Search in Google Scholar

[23] Seghetta M., et al. Life cycle assessment of macroalgal biorefinery for the production of ethanol, proteins and fertilizers – A step towards a regenerative bioeconomy. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016:137:1158–1169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.195 Search in Google Scholar

[24] Alvarado-Morales M., et al. Life cycle assessment of biofuel production from brown seaweed in Nordic conditions. Bioresource Technologies 2013:129:92–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2012.11.029 Search in Google Scholar

[25] Langlois J., et al. Life cycle assessment of biomethane from offshore-cultivated seaweed. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 2012:6(4):387–404. https://doi.org/10.1002/BBB.1330 Search in Google Scholar

[26] Jung K. A., et al. Opportunity and challenge of seaweed bioethanol based on life cycle CO2 assessment. Environmental Progress and Sustainable Energy 2017:36(1):200–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/EP.12446 Search in Google Scholar

[27] Guinée J. B., Huppes G., Heijungs R. Developing an LCA guide for decision support. Environmental Management and Health 2001:12(3):301–311. https://doi.org/10.1108/09566160110392416 Search in Google Scholar

[28] Groen E. A., et al. Sensitivity analysis in life cycle assessment. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Life Cycle Assessment in the Agri-Food Sector 2014:482–488. Search in Google Scholar

[29] Wernet G., et al. The ecoinvent database version 3 (part I): overview and methodology. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2016:21:1218–1230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1087-8 Search in Google Scholar

[30] Goedkoop M., et al. Introduction to LCA with SimaPro Title: Introduction to LCA with SimaPro. Amersfoort: Pre, 2016. Search in Google Scholar

[31] Fazio S., et al. Guide for EF compliant data sets. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2020. Search in Google Scholar

[32] Netalgae. Seaweed industry in Europe. 2012. Search in Google Scholar

[33] Ahlgren E. Compilation of Life Cycle Assessments of Cultivated Brown Seaweed A recalculation of Life Cycle Inventories. Stockholm: KTH, 2021. Search in Google Scholar

[34] Lamouroux J. V. Essai sur les genres de la famille des Thalassiophytes non articulées. (Furcellaria lumbricalis (Hudson). Essay on the genera of the non-articulated Thalassiophyta family). Paris, 1813. (In French). Search in Google Scholar

[35] Kersen P., et al. Effect of abiotic environment on the distribution of the attached and drifting red algae Furcellaria lumbricalis in the Estonian coastal sea. Estonian Journal of Ecology 2009:58(4):245–258. https://doi.org/10.3176/eco.2009.4.01 Search in Google Scholar

[36] HELCOM. Furcellaria lumbricalis Species Information Sheet. Bohn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz, 2013. Search in Google Scholar

[37] Vetik OÜ. [Online]. [Accessed 20.03.2023]. Available: https://vetik.eu/#about Search in Google Scholar

[38] Hyndla. [Online]. [Accessed 20.03.2023]. Available: https://hyndla.is/english Search in Google Scholar

[39] Mantri V. A., et al. Feasibility of farming the agarose-yielding red alga Gracilaria dura using tube-net cultivation in the open sea along the Gujarat coast of NW India. Applied Phycology 2020:1(1):12–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/26388081.2019.1648181 Search in Google Scholar

[40] Edwards M. D., Dring M. J. Open-sea cultivation trial of the red alga, Palmaria palmata from seeded tetraspores in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. Aquaculture 2011:317(1–4):203–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.04.007 Search in Google Scholar

[41] Seppälä J., et al. Country-dependent characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication based on accumulated exceedance as an impact category indicator. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2006:11(6):403–416. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2005.06.215 Search in Google Scholar

[42] Posch M., et al. The role of atmospheric dispersion models and ecosystem sensitivity in the determination of characterisation factors for acidifying and eutrophying emissions in LCIA. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2008:13(6):477–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0025-9 Search in Google Scholar

[43] Uniworkboats SIA. Fishing trawler – ST-50 – inboard / aluminium. 2022 [Online]. [Accessed 23.02.2023[. Available: https://www.nauticexpo.com/prod/uniworkboats-sia/product-66044-539847.html Search in Google Scholar

[44] Piccinno F., et al. From laboratory to industrial scale: a scale-up framework for chemical processes in life cycle assessment studies. Journal of Cleaner Production 2016:135:1085–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.164 Search in Google Scholar

[45] Chowdhury M. S., et al. An overview of solar photovoltaic panels’ end-of-life material recycling. Energy Strategy Reviews 2020:27:100431. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ESR.2019.100431 Search in Google Scholar

[46] Lin S., et al. Life cycle assessment of the use of marine biocides in antifouling paint - A comparison of the environmental profiles between conventional copper-based and innovative Selektope paint. Gothenburg: Chalmers University of Technology, 2014. Search in Google Scholar

[47] Barcelo L., et al. Cement and carbon emissions. Materials and Structures 2014:47(6):1055–1065. https://doi.org/10.1617/S11527-013-0114-5 Search in Google Scholar

[48] Troell M., et al. Farming the Ocean–Seaweeds as a Quick Fix for the Climate? Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture 2022:31(3):285–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/23308249.2022.2048792 Search in Google Scholar

[49] Kotta J., et al. Assessing the potential for sea-based macroalgae cultivation and its application for nutrient removal in the Baltic Sea. Science of the Total Environment 2022:839:156230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156230 Search in Google Scholar

[50] Xiao X., et al. Nutrient removal from Chinese coastal waters by large-scale seaweed aquaculture. Scientific Reports 2017:7:46613. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46613 Search in Google Scholar