Cyber Defense of Space Systems: Taxonomy of Vulnerabilities and Framework for Resilient Infrastructure

As space-based assets become essential to communications, navigation, defense, and civilian infrastructure, they face unprecedented risks from cyberattacks. This paper examines the vulnerabilities of space systems by developing a structured taxonomy that captures threats across three dimensions: legacy systems reliant on outdated technology, operational infrastructure involving command pathways and supply chains, and artificial intelligence–enabled systems that introduce novel risks such as data poisoning and opaque decision-making. Through a methodology combining literature review, taxonomy development, case study integration, and framework validation, the research identifies how weaknesses in ground control centers, commercial off-the-shelf components, cloud-based services, and AI-driven autonomy create systemic exposure to cyber exploitation. The findings highlight how these vulnerabilities are reinforced by real-world incidents, including NASA cyber breaches and GPS interference in Europe. This study contributes by offering a systematic framework for understanding cyber risks in space, grounded in both theory and practice. It advances the field by integrating AI-specific vulnerabilities into traditional analyses of space cybersecurity, thereby reflecting the growing autonomy of spacecraft. The results provide policymakers, engineers, and defense planners with actionable insights for developing resilient cyber defense strategies. Future research directions include AI explainability for autonomous satellites, verification of aerospace supply chains, and the establishment of international cyber defense agreements for space operations. By clarifying the taxonomy of vulnerabilities and linking them to operational realities, this paper lays the foundation for strengthening the cyber defense of space infrastructure in the 21st century.