<abstract xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">

Reporting on the experiences of four bilingual Korean-American university students enrolled in Korean language classes in Hawai‘i, this case study focuses on their identity development and voluntary efforts to achieve heritage language (HL) competence. According to the participants’ narratives, they all experienced regression in their HL abilities and language shift from Korean to English after entering school. However, they began to regain HL skills as adolescents, which was possible due both to their voluntary engagement with HL literacy and speaking practices and to the abundance of opportunities to learn and speak the HL in the home and community. Transnational connections with their heritage nation, including Korean media and visits to Korea, were key in motivating and facilitating their voluntary HL learning. Their narratives further show that the HL played an important role in the participants’ ability to construct a strong sense of ethnic identity, and that they tended to view themselves as part of two distinct cultures. They were connected to the norms and values of both the receiving country’s culture and the culture of their heritage nation. As second-generation immigrant children, they learned to utilize their bilingual and bicultural knowledge to navigate between the two cultures in a flexible manner, to construct situated identities, and to avoid conflicts and achieve collective identity, solidarity, and group membership. The study’s insights into the role of voluntary effort in HL learning and identity development have implications for HL education.
</abstract>

Identity and Voluntary Language Maintenance Efforts: A Case of Bilingual Korean-American University Students in Hawai‘i

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The survival of a language represents a part of the cultural identity of a group; therefore, groups often try to protect their identity from extinction. Hence, this prompts an understanding of how an ethnic group tries to protect their language in an inter/intra-ethnic setting concerning the Ethnolinguistic Vitality Theory which considers two main aspects to be important, namely the ‘Sustainability’ (Su) of the language and the ‘Strength’ (S) that must be met for a language to survive. The author shows that both aspects are vital to ensure that a language survives or faces extinction. The clashes of ‘Conflict amelioration/exacerbation’ and ‘Manufactured Identity’ lead to certain groups condoning violence to dominate the other and the other group to avoid language death. The study discusses Ethnolinguistics and the Ethnolinguistic Vitality Theory and its issues, language death in its two forms such as Linguicide and Glottophagy, and the processes that can ensure language survival, such as Reclamation, Revitalization, and Reinvigoration, providing concrete examples from various parts of the world to illustrate the discussed processes. Research concludes by stating that various inter/intra-ethnic conflicts are inevitable and may lead to the presence or the death of the language, but group’s motivation to preserve its language and identity can lead to language maintenance and survival.
</abstract>

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia University of Zagreb

Ethnolinguistics Vitality Theory: The Last Stance for a Language Survival

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Language death is a phenomenon with symptoms related to demeaning vocabulary count and depletion of domains of language use along with the simplicity of linguistic structures. It commences by exhibiting traits of a declining number of fluent speakers, dwindling attitude of the speakers with regard to their heritage language, language shift, lack of inter-generational language transfer accompanied by a feeling that heritage language is inferior to outside languages, and Gulgulia exhibits every trait of such a dying language. It has become a waning language that is very close to its permanent extinction. The present study elucidates the ethnolinguistic vitality of Gulgulia tested through chosen sociolinguistic parameters which were found suitable to Gulgulia’s scenario. It also explores the linguistic situation of the Gulgulian community in Dhanbad, the community members’ language use in their homes and in their miscellaneous interethnic interactions and examines what relation prevails between the community’s language preference and their vitality. It was found that speaker variables, such as age, gender, and language competence governed the speaker’s attitude toward the heritage language. The location of the speech community is also a regulating factor in determining the inclination for preservation or attrition of the native language. The analysis of the speech behavior in the Gulgulian community confirms the loss of major genres such as the art of narration. Out of all the genres of language use, only two are surviving, which is alarming.
</abstract>

The Ethnolinguistic Vitality of Gulgulia

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Latvian is the only official language in Latvia and one of the symbols of an independent state. The article provides a brief insight into the history of its reinforcement, which has not been easy. Education is one of the areas in which it is very important to develop multilingualism, while not forgetting to strengthen state language skills and their application. As the education system continues to reveal shortcomings in the process of Latvian language acquisition, Cabinet Regulations adopted in 2018 “Regulations Regarding the State Guidelines for Pre-school Education and the Model Pre-school Education Programmes” update the need for a successful transition from pre-school education to primary education at school, from pre-school education to bilingual primary school education or education carried out in Latvian. In minority families with a dominant Russian language, children acquire Russian well before pre-school age, and it is time to start learning the state language at pre-school age if this has not already been done. Taking these requirements into account, the article analyses the Latvian language skills of children of pre-school age, using 375 child speech recordings made by researchers in 2019 and 2020 in three regions – Kurzeme (Western Latvia), Latgale (Eastern Latvia), and Riga (capital). The materials are divided into three groups in each of the territories: recordings of Latvian children, recordings of minority children in groups with the Latvian language on a daily basis, and recordings of minority children in groups with the Russian language on a daily basis. The main problem is that regardless of the region, the Latvian language skills of minority children who attend pre-school education groups with a dominant Russian language on a daily basis are still insufficient and do not comply with the requirements set in Cabinet Regulation No. 716 of 2018 that the children should be prepared to start school with the Latvian as the learning language or bilingually. This suggests that the legislative provisions are not fully implemented and improvements are necessary for the Latvian language training system for minority children.
</abstract>

Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies

Language Policy Implementation in Latvian Pre-School: Latvian Language Skills of Minority Children

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The present study aimed to investigate the cross-linguistic effect of L1 vocabulary, reading motivation and habits on L2 vocabulary, reading motivation and habits. In this respect, proposing a model, the study aims to contribute to foreign language education and research. The data was collected through vocabulary size tests, reading motivational scales, and reading habits questionnaires from 490 participants from four different state universities. The proposed model was analyzed with the PLSSEM technique as the complex theoretical model suggested. The results revealed that L1 vocabulary size and reading efficacy were the two predictors of L2 vocabulary size; however, L1 vocabulary size was the best predictor. Whereas L1 reading habits explained L1 vocabulary size, L2 reading habits did not predict L2 vocabulary size. Although participants' most highly endorsed reading motivational dispositions in L1 and L2 differed, only intrinsic reading motivation explained reading habits in L1 and L2. Moreover, L1 reading motivation and habits statistically significantly predicted L2 reading motivation and habits. In this respect, the study suggests that L1 vocabulary size and reading habits are essential in developing L2 vocabulary size and reading habits.
</abstract>

A Study into the Interplay Between First and Second Language Reading Motivation, Reading Habits and Vocabulary Size

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Heritage language speakers may feel anxiety about using their heritage language in different settings due to monolingual ideologies, family attitudes, language proficiency, and many other factors. However, the experience of those enrolling in heritage language classes has yet to be known in detail. This study examined heritage language anxiety (HLA) toward speaking skills among Turkish heritage language learners (HLLs). A descriptive design was used to seek the HLA level and its relations with various variables such as the home language, communicative language with friends, self-perceived proficiency, age, gender, grade level, birthplaces of children and parents, age of acquisition (AoA), book-reading and movie-watching languages. Three hundred and three school-age bilingual Turkish children in Germany participated in the study. The results demonstrated that the HLA level of the target group was low. In addition, in-class HLA was significantly higher than out-of-class. Moreover, HLA levels significantly differed in terms of the father's birthplace, the communicative language with friends, self-perceived proficiency, and the movie-watching language. Despite evident differences regarding the book-reading language and birthplace of the mother, these were not statistically significant. Also, no relationship was observed between HLA and some variables: Age, grade level, and AoA. This initial study attempted to comprehend the complex patterns behind the language anxiety concept in the context of Turkish immigrants in Germany and heritage language education (HLE). In conclusion, interaction via heritage language (HL) and access to HLE may contribute to reducing HLA. However, paradoxically, while HLE may alleviate general HLA, it may cause more in-class anxiety due to sociocultural and pedagogical factors.
</abstract>

Exploring Language Anxiety Among Turkish Heritage Language Learners in Germany

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Dyslexia and L2 appropriation have been extensively documented separately; however, few studies have brought them together. Our research sheds linguistic light on dyslexia in Arabic-speaking bilingual children. The aim is to study phonology, reading and spelling in dyslexic and non-dyslexic children learning French as a second language to better distinguish between what a reading disorder is and what typical appropriation is, with possible transient difficulties related to L2 development. The general hypothesis is that there are specific markers of dyslexia in Arabic-speaking children learning French as a second language. A multiple-case study was conducted. It consisted of four dyads of children aged 8-10 years: two bilingual dyslexic children, two bilingual non-dyslexic children, two monolingual dyslexic children and two monolingual non-dyslexic children. The bilingual children were Arabic speakers who had arrived in France at the age of six. In a diachronic and synchronic approach, spontaneous and experimental data were collected over a period of nine months. The experiment was based on the Phonoludos, Odedys 2, ELFE and ELDP2 tools. Parental questionnaires were also administered to parents. A synthesis of the most important results is presented. A phonological deficit is manifested in all dyslexic subjects by difficulties in speech perception/production, weaknesses in phonemic unit manipulation and decoding. In reading and spelling, atypical phonemic and phonetic errors are found in large numbers, whereas they are absent in non-dyslexics. This study is a first step in understanding how to identify dyslexia in bilingual children. It is now important to extend the study to a larger number of subjects, with a view to adapting tools that will facilitate the identification and assessment of children who speak several languages.
</abstract>

Dyslexia in Arabic-French Bilingual Children: A Multiple-Case Study

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The issue of multilingualism often arises in the context of audiovisual translation, when dubbing, subtitling or voice-over is under discussion. This aspect also does not lose its significance in subtitling multilingual films for the deaf and hard of hearing. By applying this mode, the content of audiovisual product is conveyed to the deaf by employing a special instrument of audiovisual translation, namely, specialized subtitles (SDH). In this case, subtitles must include not only a translated dialogue text; the additional information that helps the deaf perceive the off screen non-verbal and verbal cues, understand the narrative and mood of the film and estimate roles of foreign languages must be added as well. The paper aims at exploring strategies for conveying multilingualism to the deaf in the films created by Lithuanian filmmakers. Three Lithuanian multilingual films “Back to Your Arms“ (2010, directed by K. Vildžiūnas), „How We Played the Revolution“ (2011, directed by G. Žickytė) and „Miracle“ (2017, directed by E. Vertelytė) as the research material were selected for the analysis. In the theoretical part, strategies of application of multilingual films suggested by foreign scholars (De Higes-Andino et al., 2013, 2014, Szarkowska &amp; Żbikowska &amp; Krejtz, 2013, 2014) are outlined; insights into multilingualism presented by Lithuanian researchers are reviewed and practical principles that help reveal multilingualism for the deaf audience in Lithuanian films are examined. A descriptive-analytical approach is employed to analyze the rendition of multilingualism to the target audience; whereas, to reveal needs of the Lithuanian deaf the analysis of achieved quantitative data is made. The study has revealed that the process of conveying multilingualism to the deaf viewers in Lithuanian films is a process that requires creativity. Moreover, the results of the analysis suggested that in the analyzed Lithuanian films a multilingual source text was only translated and subtitled by applying a standard subtitling format. With regard to the multilingualism rendering for the deaf, it can been noted that standard subtitles only partially revealed the content of the film; though, the information and aspects about multilingualism as such still remained inaccessible. For this reason, special subtitles (SDH) for the hearing impaired viewers should be prepared; however, this type of subtitles has stayed uncommon for the Lithuanian filmmakers.
</abstract>

Multiligual Films: Rendering Multilingual Narrative for Deaf Viewers in Lithuania

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From the beginnings of translation studies to the present day, the theoretical and practical paradigm of translation has come a long way. Although it was closely associated with linguistics and the solution of linguistic problems of translation until the early 1980s, it was the first translation theories that drew attention to the cultural phenomena of texts and the challenges of translation. Translation scholars Susan Bassnett and André Lefevre (1990) wrote that translation's shift to cultural phenomena represented a significant cultural turn. This led to a paradigm shift in translation and a new view that translation is an intercultural act and a dialogue between cultures. Given the importance and relevance of research on cultural meanings in translation, this paper focuses on one type of cultural meanings – culture-specific items that sometimes become a cultural stumbling block for translators. The aim of the research described in the article is to analyse the peculiarities of the use of culture-specific items in Ričardas Gavelis's novel <italic>Vilnius Poker</italic>, to conduct a comparative study of the translation of culture-specific items from Lithuanian into English and French, and to determine the translation techniques, strategies and trends of cultural transposition used by translators. The methods used to achieve the aim of the study include synthesis of scientific literature, comparative, descriptive and quantitative analysis. The use and translation of culture-specific items does not raise the issue of equivalence and linguistic deficit. Culture-specific items are analysed not as a separate unit of the text, but as part of a holistic whole that is organically integrated into the text and contributes to its meaning. The use of culture-specific items in the research material has led to the identification of four thematic groups: social, political, and historical; folkloric and mythological; domestic; and geographical. The data obtained in the quantitative use of culture-specific items suggest that two-fifths of all the culture-specific items analysed belong to the social, political, and historical thematic group reflecting the social life, deformations, Soviet experiences, and worldview of the people in the Soviet period in Vilnius and Lithuania as a whole, as portrayed by R. Gavelis. In a comparative study of translating culture-specific items from Lithuanian into English and French, based on the translation techniques and strategies described by Andrew Chesterman, nine translation techniques and three strategies were identified: from the semantic translation strategy, synonymy, abstraction change, trope change, and paraphrase were used; from the pragmatic translation strategy, the techniques of translation were: explicitness change and omission; from the syntactic or change of form translation, the translation techniques were: literal translation, loan, and transposition. The evaluation of the different translation techniques chosen by the English and French translators to translate culture-specific items showed that the English translation adopted the tendency of foreignization in order to “bring the reader to the author”, i.e. to provide the readers of the translation with as much systematic cultural information as possible about Soviet and postwar Lithuania. In contrast, French translation showed the opposite tendency toward domestication, i.e. the abandonment, omission, or replacement of certain cultural meanings with French cultural meanings. In this, the translator's cultural transposition was shown to “bring the author to the reader”.
</abstract>

Use of Culture-Specific Items and their Translation from Lithuanian into English and French in Ričardas Gavelis’s <italic>Vilnius Poker</italic>

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The development and research of discourse-annotated corpora is a relatively new field, therefore Lithuanian researchers seek to supplement the existing corpora resources and look for ways to study discourse relations by linking and comparing them with their counterparts in other languages because in different languages discourse relations are realized by different linguistic means. The aim of the article is to present the developing available corpora resources drawing on the experience of foreign scholars and to discuss guidelines for translation research at the discourse level. Therefore, the article first deals with the possibilities of expressing discourse relations by using discourse markers as their linguistic realization in different languages, discussing possible choices of translators, taking into account discourse realtions in translation and the use of different linguistic means. The article presents the parallel multilingual corpus TED-MBD (<italic>Multilingual discourse-annotated corpus</italic>), which is annotated at the discourse level, in accordance with the objectives and principles of PDTB (<italic>Penn Discourse Treebank</italic>) discourse annotation. The article discusses in detail the annotation system of PDTB discourse markers, the reader is introduced to the hierarchy of senses of discourse relations, the principles of annotation and insights into the application of the PDTB scheme. It also describes the annotation principles of the Lithuanian part of the corpus in accordance with the PDTB discourse annotation rules; the first results related to the expression of discourse relations and the use of discourse markers are discussed. The article also presents the first research guidelines on how to compare Lithuanian and English discourse-annotated texts in order to understand translation tendencies at the discourse level.
</abstract>

Vilnius Gediminas technical university (VILNIUS TECH)

Lithuanian Discourse Markers And Their Relations In A Multilingual Corpus

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