Political and security reasons as factors of implementing EU green policies and directives in Kosovo to align with the EU acquis and transition towards a greener country

The study offers significant insights into the multifaceted benefits and implications of adopting European Union (EU) green policies and directives in Kosovo. The analysis covers a range of interconnected dimensions, including political, security, environmental and socio-economic factors. Kosovo’s ambition to join the EU necessitates strict adherence to the EU acquis, which encompasses a comprehensive collection of EU laws, regulations and standards. This study demonstrates that the implementation of EU green policies and directives is a critical step in this alignment process. By adopting these directives, Kosovo not only signals its commitment to EU standards but also strengthens its political ties with the Union. Such alignment is crucial for Kosovo’s long-term political stability and integration into European structures, paving the way for eventual EU membership.

Furthermore, the study highlights the intricate link between environmental policies and directives and national security. Implementing green policies and directives enables Kosovo to mitigate risks associated with environmental degradation, such as resource scarcity and natural disasters, which can lead to social unrest and conflict. Moreover, transitioning to sustainable energy sources reduces dependence on external energy supplies, thereby enhancing energy security. This aspect is particularly significant for Kosovo, given its geopolitical context and the potential vulnerabilities associated with energy dependency. The environmental challenges faced by Kosovo, including pollution, deforestation and inadequate waste management, are also addressed in the study. The emphasis on green policies and directives underscores the urgent need to tackle these issues through sustainable practices. By implementing EU directives on environmental protection, Kosovo can transition towards a greener economy, promoting biodiversity, reducing carbon emissions and improving public health. This transition is essential for the long-term ecological sustainability of the region.

Economic transformation in Kosovo can also be driven by aligning with EU green policies and directives. The study points out that adopting sustainable practices can stimulate green growth, creating new job opportunities in renewable energy, waste management and environmental conservation. This economic shift is vital for diversifying Kosovo’s economy, which currently relies heavily on traditional industries, and for fostering innovation and investment in green technologies.

Social implications of green policies and directives are another crucial aspect highlighted in the study. Public awareness and education about environmental issues are vital for fostering a culture of sustainability. By implementing EU directives, Kosovo can enhance public understanding of environmental challenges and the importance of sustainable practices. This societal shift is essential for ensuring widespread support and active participation in the transition towards a greener country. Finally, the study situates Kosovo’s efforts within the broader context of global environmental initiatives. By aligning with EU green policies and directives, Kosovo contributes to international efforts to combat climate change and promote sustainable development. This alignment not only benefits Kosovo but also reinforces global environmental goals, illustrating the interconnectedness of local actions and global outcomes.

This article holds substantial relevance across various academic and practical fields, including academia, international law studies, EU integration studies and overall contributions to scholarly research.

In the realm of academia, this article provides a nuanced analysis of how environmental policies and directives intersect with political and security considerations. It offers a comprehensive case study of Kosovo, enriching the discourse on how emerging nations can leverage green policies and directives to facilitate broader socio-political objectives. The interdisciplinary approach of this research, combining political science, environmental studies and security studies, makes it a valuable resource for scholars interested in the complex interplay between these fields.

For international law studies, the article underscores the importance of legal frameworks in fostering environmental sustainability and political stability. It highlights the role of EU directives as instruments of international law that extend beyond environmental protection to encompass broader political and security dimensions. This study serves as a reference point for understanding how international legal norms are implemented at the national level, providing insights into the mechanisms and challenges involved in such processes.

In the context of EU integration studies, the article is particularly pertinent. It explores the specific requirements and benefits of aligning national policies and directives with the EU acquis, providing a detailed examination of Kosovo’s efforts to meet EU standards. The study sheds light on the practical steps and strategic considerations involved in the EU integration process, offering valuable lessons for other countries in similar stages of EU accession. By focusing on Kosovo, it adds a unique perspective to the existing body of research on EU enlargement and integration.

Moreover, the overall novelty of the work lies in its comprehensive approach to examining the multifaceted impact of EU green policies and directives. While much of the existing literature tends to focus on either environmental or political aspects in isolation, this article bridges these areas, providing a holistic view of how green policies and directives can serve as tools for broader political and security objectives. This integrative perspective not only advances academic understanding but also offers practical insights for policymakers and international organisations aiming to promote sustainable development and political stability.

In conclusion, the article makes significant contributions to academia by offering a rich, interdisciplinary analysis of Kosovo’s adoption of EU green policies and directives. It is a valuable resource for international law scholars, EU integration experts and those interested in the innovative application of environmental directives as instruments of political and security strategy. The study’s originality and comprehensive approach enhance its relevance and utility across multiple fields of study, making it a noteworthy addition to scholarly literature.

The implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo has been influenced by various factors, including political and security reasons. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in exploring the impact of these reasons on the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. In this literature review, different authors and their analyses will be discussed. Notably, one of the recent publications is ‘Green Manufacturing and Environmental Sustainability in Kosovo’s small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)’ by F. Azemi, G. Šimunović, R. Lujić, D. Tokody, L. Mulaku, Azemi et al. In 2023, the publication explores the challenges faced by SMEs in Kosovo in implementing green manufacturing practices. The study underscores the importance of political support and favourable regulatory environments for SMEs to adopt environmentally sustainable measures. Political stability and security in the region are essential for creating an atmosphere conducive to green initiatives.

The studies underscore the intricate relationship between political dynamics, security concerns and the pursuit of sustainable energy and agricultural practices in Kosovo. Abedin (2023) emphasises the pressing need for Kosovo to align itself with energy transition policies and directives, shedding light on the significant influence of political factors, including foreign policies and directives and international relations, on the progress of green energy adoption in the region. Security concerns surrounding energy infrastructure further complicate the trajectory of this transition. Hany’s work, ‘The Implications of Foreign Powers’ Foreign Policies and directives in Ethnic Conflicts of Serbia and Kosovo’ (2023), delves into the role of foreign policies and directives in ethnic conflicts, unveiling how these political dynamics and foreign interventions can deeply impact environmental policies and directives. The study illuminates how international actors wield the power to either promote or hinder Kosovo’s green agenda, depending on their political interests.

Turning to the realm of hydropower, Gysin’s examination in ‘Hydropower and Justice in Kosovo’ (2023) underscores the interplay between political decisions and security concerns in hydropower projects, shedding light on how they can influence environmental outcomes. This study posits that political stability and considerations of justice are pivotal elements in the formulation of sustainable energy policies and directives. Shifting the focus to agriculture, Krasniqi et al.’s research work, ‘Modelling Technical Efficiency of Horticulture Farming in Kosovo’ (2023), demonstrates how political support for agriculture and security in rural areas can dictate the adoption of sustainable farming practices. The study emphasises that green agricultural policies and directives are not isolated but rather interconnected with broader political and security contexts. Kulici et al.’s collaborative work on ‘Threats and Drivers of Change in Populations of Managed Honey Bees in the Balkan Countries’ (2023) delves into the world of beekeeping in Kosovo and Albania. The study underscores the impact of political considerations on environmental policies and directives related to pesticide use and biodiversity protection, accentuating the need for alignment with green objectives.

Finally, Kostov and Davidova’s investigation in ‘Smallholders Are Not the Same: Under the Hood of Kosovo Agriculture’ (2023) emphasises the significance of political stability and security for maintaining agricultural sustainability during crises. The study reveals the instrumental role of agricultural policies and directives in encouraging green practices among smallholders.

Expanding the critical review of literature on the influence of political and security factors on the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo, we incorporate a broader range of authors and publications. In their publication on property management in 2022, Hoxha and Lecaj delve into ‘Regulatory Barriers to Implementing Sustainable Buildings in Kosovo’. The study scrutinises the regulatory challenges encountered in the pursuit of sustainable building practices within Kosovo. Political decisions and policies and directives governing building codes and standards wield a direct impact on the green building sector. Furthermore, security and safety concerns emerge as influential factors shaping construction practices. The authors advocate for the alignment of Kosovo’s regulations with stringent green labelling standards, emphasising the importance of political and security considerations in this alignment.

Gulmez and Dikmen, in their work ‘EU as a Good (Enough) Governance Exporter in Kosovo? Local Views on the Aborted Kosovo E Re Power Plant Project’ published in 2022, examine the EU’s role in Kosovo’s governance, with a particular focus on the energy sector. The study explores how EU policies and directives and initiatives are perceived and implemented at the local level in Kosovo. It underscores the pivotal roles that political decisions and security considerations play in shaping the energy landscape, including the adoption of green energy solutions.

Dikmen and Gulmez, in their 2022 publication titled ‘Destined for Coal? A “Hierarchy of Harms” and the Prospects of Renewable Energy in Kosovo’, assess the potential for renewable energy development in Kosovo, taking into account the hierarchy of environmental harms. The study delves into the influence of political elites’ decisions and civil society’s activism on energy policy. Security concerns and the choices regarding energy sources are deeply intertwined with Kosovo’s vision for the advancement of green energy solutions. Turning to a more data-driven approach, Buscema et al. present a case study in ‘A Nonlinear, Data-Driven, anns-Based Approach to Culture-Led Development Policies and directives in Rural Areas: The Case of Gjakove and Peć Districts, Western Kosovo’, published in 2022. This study scrutinises culture-led development policies and directives in the rural areas of Gjakove and Peć districts in Western Kosovo. The authors delve into how political decisions and security considerations shape the implementation of cultural and green development strategies in these regions.

In ‘Prospects for Mainstreaming Urban Agriculture in Kosovo in Support of Sustainable Urban Development’, published in the International Journal of Environmental Impacts in 2022, Caka explores the feasibility of integrating urban agriculture into Kosovo’s urban areas to bolster sustainable development. Urban planning and land use policies and directives, directly influenced by political decisions, wield significant influence over the urban environment and opportunities for green urban agriculture. Veliu Rexhepi and Careva conduct a historical review of housing policies and directives in Kosovo in their 2022 publication, ‘Review of Housing Policies and directives in Kosovo from 1947 to 2021’. This comprehensive study traces the evolution of housing policies and directives and laws within Kosovo and their practical implementation. The study underscores how housing policies and directives directly impact the built environment, subsequently affecting the potential for green housing initiatives.

Lastly, Bekteshi’s analysis, ‘Environmental Laws in Kosovo: Implementation of the SAA’, published in 2020, zeroes in on the implementation of environmental legislation in Kosovo, benchmarked against EU standards. The study highlights the critical role of political institutions and the efficacy of policy implementation in aligning Kosovo’s environmental laws with European norms. This alignment has far-reaching implications for the effective implementation of green policies and directives in Kosovo. The literature reviewed here reveals the intricate relationship between political and security factors and the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. Political stability, foreign policies and directives, and security concerns can either facilitate or hinder the adoption of environmentally sustainable practices in various sectors. Future research should continue to explore these dynamics and provide insights into how to navigate these challenges effectively to promote green policies and directives and practices in Kosovo.

Overall, these authors provide valuable insights into the role of political and security reasons in the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. They highlight the importance of considering political and security considerations in EU green policies and directives, and the need for continued research and analysis in this area. The literature suggests that political and security reasons play a significant role in the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. These reasons are crucial for the success of EU green policies and directives, as they impact the stability and security of the region and can promote sustainable development and reconciliation. Further research is needed to better understand the impact of EU green policies and directives on the political and security situation in Kosovo, and to explore the challenges and opportunities for the future implementation of EU green policies and directives in the region.

The present study formulates the following research questions:

Research Question 1: What are the challenges and factors affecting the implementation of EU’s green policies and directives in Kosovo, and how can they be addressed?

This study employed a qualitative research approach, specifically using semi-structured interviews with 10 participants. Qualitative research methods are well-suited for gaining a deeper understanding of a research topic, as they allow for rich and intricate details of phenomena that cannot be obtained through quantitative methods (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The interviews were conducted in person and lasted for approximately 30 min each. To collect the qualitative data, a semi-structured interview format was used, which was created specifically for this study and adhered to a strict research protocol. The interviews were recorded to ensure accurate transcription of the data. Ethical considerations were taken into account during the research process, and the human research ethics application was subject to review by the Human Research Ethics Committee of UBT Law Faculty. The authorisation was granted by the Committee at the Faculty level, as Kosovo does not have an independent body to review human research ethics applications.

There were 10 interview questions in this study that were designed to explore the following:

Challenges and factors affecting the implementation of EU’s green policies and directives in Kosovo, and how they can be addressed.

The interview questions are presented in Table 1.

To further explore these topics, the laddering technique was used, which allowed participants to discuss the benefits and drawbacks of each issue arising from the interview question (Reynolds and Gutman, 1984a; Gutman, 1982).

Purposive sampling was used as a non-probability sampling technique for the qualitative interviews, with homogeneous purposive sampling selected to choose research participants based on their shared road transportation experience. Saunders et al. (2012) note that homogeneous purposive sampling is used when the researcher selects sample members who share a common characteristic, such as a particular occupation or experience. In this study, 15 respondents with extensive expertise in security and energy policies and directives were invited for an interview from all over Kosovo, but only 10 responded positively to participate.

A sample size of 10 respondents was chosen for each population to ensure both code and meaning saturation, as recommended by Hennink et al. (2017). This means that the data collected from the interviews were sufficient to achieve a deep understanding of the research topic and that further interviews were unlikely to yield new information.

The structure of respondents is presented in Table 2.

The current study employed semi-structured interviews, which were recorded and transcribed to facilitate data analysis. Verbatim transcription from audio recordings was used to generate textual data from in-depth interviews and focus groups. Each interview lasted for 30 min, resulting in approximately six pages of verbatim transcripts per individual. Thematic analysis was employed to identify implicit and explicit ideas within the data, with a focus on phrases rather than individual words. To identify patterns of responses, the researchers read the material three times and developed codes to represent and organise the sections into recurrent and emerging themes. Following the method suggested by Clarke and Braun (2017), the researchers identified code cooccurrence using NVivo software to code themes and identify patterns of codes and links between codes and themes across 30 pages of textual data in a systematic manner.

The researchers followed Yin’s (2011) phases of compiling, disassembling and re-assembling data. During the reassembling phase, the data analysis was not based on theme occurrence frequency or content but rather on whether the themes were relevant to the overall research questions, as recommended by Castleberry and Nolen (2018). This approach allowed the researchers to identify meaningful and relevant themes that addressed the research questions, despite not being the most frequent themes in the data.

Kosovo is steadfast in its commitment to aligning its environmental policies and legislation with EU standards as part of its broader European integration efforts. This endeavour requires adherence to several key EU environmental directives under the Energy Community Treaty, notably the Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD 2001/80/EC) and the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED 2010/75/EU). These directives impose stringent limits on emissions from power plants, addressing a significant environmental challenge for Kosovo, which continues to rely on ageing and highly polluting thermal power plants.

In concordance with the EU’s comprehensive environmental strategy, Kosovo has endorsed the Green Agenda for the Western Balkans. This agenda reflects the EU’s Green Deal priorities, emphasising climate action, energy transition, circular economy and pollution reduction. By adopting this agenda, Kosovo aims to implement sustainable economic and environmental measures, facilitating a green transition that aligns with EU standards and practices.

Kosovo has made significant strides in implementing various EU directives, regulations, and policies and directives. Some of the key directives that Kosovo has adopted or is in the process of implementing include as follows:

The Large Combustion Plant Directive (LCPD 2001/80/EC): This directive sets strict emission limits for large combustion plants, including sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and dust. Compliance with this directive requires substantial upgrades to existing thermal power plants or their gradual phase-out.

Despite notable progress in adopting environmental legislation, Kosovo continues to face significant challenges in enforcement. The country’s legal framework remains misaligned with critical directives such as the EU Environmental Liability Directive, which is crucial for holding polluters accountable. Furthermore, there are considerable gaps in the enforcement of Kosovo’s Air Quality Strategy, which is essential for addressing severe air pollution issues in urban areas. Transparency and public consultation persist as areas of concern, as evidenced by the contentious Kosova ere power plant project, where local opposition and environmental concerns have underscored deficiencies in public engagement and regulatory oversight. To bolster Kosovo’s environmental initiatives, the EU provides substantial financial assistance through the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA). This funding supports various projects aimed at environmental protection, climate action and transitioning to a green economy. Notably, the EU has allocated resources for the closure and decommissioning of the Kosovo A power plant, a significant step towards reducing emissions and promoting cleaner energy sources.

Kosovo’s political and security landscape is defined by a multi-party parliamentary representative democratic republic. The Prime Minister functions as the head of government, while the President acts as the head of state. The legislative body, the Assembly of Kosovo, consists of 120 members elected for 4-year terms. Although the system is democratic, it often necessitates coalition governments due to the multitude of parties, which must cooperate to establish a stable administration.

The security environment in Kosovo is notably intricate, largely because of ongoing ethnic tensions between the ethnic Albanian majority and the Serb minority, particularly in the northern regions. These tensions are exacerbated by several significant challenges. First, Kosovo relies heavily on ageing, polluting power plants that fail to meet EU emissions standards, posing substantial environmental and health risks. Additionally, the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations is weak, resulting in widespread non-compliance and ecological degradation. Major infrastructure projects frequently lack transparency and adequate public consultation, raising concerns about governance and accountability.

Ethnic tensions remain a significant security threat in Kosovo, especially in the north where the Serb minority resides. The ongoing dispute with Serbia over Kosovo’s independence, coupled with the lack of substantial progress in the EU-facilitated dialogue, perpetuates instability. The risk of these tensions escalating into violence is a persistent concern. Governance in Kosovo is further compromised by corruption and a weak rule of law. The ineffective enforcement of laws, including those related to environmental protection, undermines democratic institutions and governance. Corruption within the security sector further erodes public trust. Organised crime is a significant threat to Kosovo’s security, with criminal groups involved in trafficking drugs, weapons and people. Additionally, the potential for radicalisation and extremism remains a concern, given the history of some Kosovars joining foreign terrorist organisations.

Economically, Kosovo faces numerous challenges. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a 7.2% economic contraction in 2020. High unemployment rates, especially among the youth, and pervasive poverty contribute to social tensions. The reliance on outdated and polluting power plants exacerbates both economic and environmental issues. Kosovo’s aspirations for EU and NATO membership are hampered by political obstacles, including the non-recognition of its independence by several EU and NATO countries. The lack of progress on necessary reforms and the normalisation of relations with Serbia remain significant barriers to integration.

A crucial aspect of Kosovo’s security challenges is the transition of its energy sector from fossil fuels to renewable sources. This shift is essential for several reasons: reducing environmental pollution, improving public health and ensuring energy security. However, the transition demands substantial investment and a comprehensive policy overhaul, posing significant challenges for a country with limited financial resources and existing infrastructure largely dependent on coal. Developing a robust legal and policy framework is vital for driving Kosovo’s green transition. This includes the creation and implementation of a National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP), which would outline the strategies and measures necessary to achieve energy efficiency, increase the share of renewable energy sources, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The NECP would serve as a roadmap, setting clear targets and timelines for the transition, and ensuring that all stakeholders, including government agencies, private sector players and civil society, are aligned in their efforts.

As part of its European integration agenda, Kosovo is committed to aligning its policies and directives with EU standards. This commitment includes adhering to key EU environmental directives through the Energy Community Treaty. The Treaty aims to extend the EU’s internal energy market to Southeastern Europe and beyond, promoting energy security, sustainability and economic development. Compliance with these directives requires Kosovo to adopt stringent environmental regulations, improve energy efficiency and enhance the integration of renewable energy into its national grid. The EU continues to support Kosovo financially, particularly in areas like environmental protection, climate action and green transition initiatives. EU funding and technical assistance are crucial for enabling Kosovo to undertake the necessary reforms and investments. These funds support a range of projects, from modernising energy infrastructure and developing renewable energy sources to enhancing environmental governance and public awareness. Moreover, the shift to renewable energy is not merely a technical or financial challenge but also a social and economic one. The transition must be managed in a way that ensures social equity, creating new job opportunities in the green economy and providing support for communities and workers affected by the phase-out of fossil fuels. This requires comprehensive planning and stakeholder engagement to ensure that the benefits of the transition are widely shared and that no one is left behind.

In response to the interview question related to the knowledge of the EU’s green policies and directives and directives in Kosovo and their implementation process, respondents identified the following emerging themes: (1) Specific EU green policies and directives and directives and initiatives in Kosovo, (2) implementation process and collaboration with stakeholders, (3) EU’s approach to environmental issues in Kosovo, (4) key areas for green policy implementation in Kosovo and (5) the role of funding and technical assistance in implementing green policies and directives.

The most well-elaborated answers of respondents are presented as follows: Respondents 8, 9, and 10 provide information on the implementation of green policies and directives in Kosovo with the support of the EU. Respondent 8 highlights that the Kosovo government has committed to adopting and implementing the EU’s Green Deal, while also signing a Memorandum of Understanding on the Green Agenda for the Western Balkans. Respondent 9 focuses on the Energy Community Treaty, which aims to promote sustainable energy in the region, and notes the EU’s funding for projects that improve energy efficiency and promote renewable energy in Kosovo. Finally, respondent 10 emphasises the importance of cooperation between the EU, Kosovo government, civil society and private sector stakeholders in implementing green policies and directives, and mentions development of the public transport infrastructure, promotion of cycling and waste management system as examples.

In response to the interview question-related significance of political and security factors in the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo, the respondents identified the following themes: (1) political instability and security concerns; (2) EU support and engagement with Kosovo’s government, civil society, and private sector stakeholders; (3) hesitation of international donors and investors in investing in sustainable development projects due to perceived political and security risks; (4) political stability, effective governance and multi-stakeholder collaboration; (5) environmental degradation caused by conflicts or security incidents undermining the effectiveness of green policies and directives; and (6) political and security issues in neighbouring countries, particularly Serbia, can impact cross-border cooperation on green policies and directives.

The most well-elaborated answers related to the second interview questions of respondents are presented as follows: Several respondents highlighted the impact of political instability and security concerns on Kosovo’s ability to implement consistent environmental policies and directives and attract sustainable development investments. Respondent 1 specifically points out the challenges faced in waste management and natural resource regulation due to regional political and security dynamics. Respondent 2 highlights the importance of EU engagement with Kosovo’s stakeholders for the successful implementation of green policies and directives. Respondent 5 emphasises the need for political stability and effective governance to attract investment and facilitate public–private partnerships. Respondent 8 underlines the impact of conflicts or security incidents on environmental degradation, while Respondent 10 suggests a multi-stakeholder approach involving government, civil society, private sector and international partners to build trust and collaboration, strengthen institutions, increase public awareness and participation, and promote sustainability as a shared goal.

Likewise, from the responses of the interviewees, several emerging themes can be identified regarding the impact of political and security factors on the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. The themes are political instability, weak governance and institutional capacity, security risks and tensions, lack of public awareness and participation, and environmental pollution.

The implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo faces significant challenges due to political factors, security risks, weak governance and institutional capacity, and limited public awareness and engagement. Respondents 1 and 4 highlighted how political instability and lack of political will delayed the adoption of key energy efficiency measures and laws, affecting Kosovo’s compliance with international obligations. Respondent 2 emphasised the security risks related to renewable energy projects and the need to carefully consider their social impacts. Respondent 3 pointed out the institutional challenges, including the lack of regulatory frameworks and enforcement mechanisms for environmental protection. Respondents 5 and 6 provided examples of how mining activities and hydroelectric power plant construction led to environmental pollution and security risks, resulting in political tensions and public opposition. Respondent 7 highlighted the limited institutional capacity and resources, while respondent 8 emphasised the limited public awareness and engagement. Finally, respondent 9 highlighted how air pollution is a significant health risk in Kosovo, and political and security factors have made it challenging to implement policies and directives to address it.

With respect to the extent that local communities and organisations have been involved in the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo, the respondents identified the following themes: Local community involvement in green policies and directives and projects, Successes and challenges in engaging local communities, Role of civil society organisations in promoting green policies and directives, Need for public awareness, capacity-building and collaboration, Concerns about lack of transparency and accountability in decision-making processes and potential negative impacts on local communities and natural resources.

In this regard, the respondents identified that many factors could impact the success of green policies and directives and projects in Kosovo, including the involvement of local communities and organisations. Respondent 1 emphasised the importance of involving local stakeholders in the policymaking process, highlighting examples where local communities were consulted during the development of the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan and the Renewable Energy Action Plan. Respondent 4 pointed out that successful community engagement has been seen in the areas of energy efficiency and renewable energy, and that financial and technical support from the EU has been instrumental in promoting community engagement. Respondent 6 stressed that involving local communities and organisations is crucial to ensure the sustainability of green policies and directives, and that capacity-building and collaboration among stakeholders are needed to overcome challenges facing community engagement. Respondent 8 highlighted the important role of civil society organisations in promoting green policies and directives that are responsive to local needs and priorities, and how their participation in the policymaking process can help to ensure that plans are aligned with EU standards and best practices. Finally, respondent 10 raised concerns about the lack of meaningful participation and consultation in decision-making processes, particularly in relation to EIAs and project approvals. Greater transparency and accountability in decision-making processes are needed to address concerns about potential negative impacts on local communities and natural resources.

With respect to the future challenges for EU green policy implementation in Kosovo, considering political and security factors, the following themes emerged: political instability, security risks and territorial disputes, reliance on coal, opportunities for progress through public-private partnerships, innovation, and international cooperation, renewable energy transition, EU support for Kosovo’s green transition, and business reforms improving investment in energy. In this regard, Respondent 2 highlighted challenges related to political instability, weak governance and corruption, as well as the reliance on coal and lack of investment in renewable energy. Conversely, Respondent 6 discussed the need for good governance and security considerations to effectively implement green policies and directives, and the importance of civil society and stakeholder engagement. Furthermore, Respondent 8 noted positive steps taken towards aligning with EU green policies and directives, including adoption of National Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Action Plans, and support from the EU. Finally, Respondent 10 emphasised the opportunities for progress through effective governance, international support and public participation, by addressing challenges related to political instability, weak governance, corruption and attracting investments.

Thematic analysis of the respondents’ answers reveals the following emerging themes on how the EU has secured its green initiatives and projects in Kosovo: funding, technical assistance, capacity building, policy development, sustainable development, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and promotion of renewable energy sources. In this regard, Respondent 1 emphasises the EU’s financial support through various programmes, which have funded projects such as the construction of renewable energy facilities, renovation of public buildings and waste management systems. To this end, respondent 2 discusses the EU’s efforts in promoting sustainable development, energy efficiency, renewable energy and waste management in Kosovo. Similarly, respondents 3 and 4 highlight the EU’s technical assistance and expertise, which have supported the development of new policies and directives, regulations and waste management systems. Nonetheless, respondent 5 notes the development of a National Energy Efficiency Action Plan as a key policy initiative. Furthermore, respondent 6 mentions the IPA, which provides financial assistance to candidate and potential candidate countries, including Kosovo. Conversely, whereas respondent 7 notes that the EU’s efforts are aimed at reducing the environmental impact of economic activities in Kosovo, Respondent 8 discusses the EU’s support towards a low-carbon and climate-resilient economy through the European Green Deal and a financing agreement worth €76 million. In this respect, respondent 9 mentions the EU’s support for Kosovo’s national energy strategy, specifically in increasing the share of renewable energy. Finally, respondent 10 acknowledges the EU’s long-standing partnership with Kosovo in promoting sustainable development and environmental protection.

Furthermore, in response to interview question related to the impact of EU green policies and directives on the political and security situation in Kosovo, the respondents identified the emerging themes such as political and security factors as barriers to the implementation of EU green policies and directives; Lack of resources, funding, and technical expertise, Institutional capacity and governance challenges, Environmental degradation, Community resistance to renewable energy projects, Territorial disputes and geopolitical tensions, Multi-stakeholder approach as a solution to challenges.

In this regard, the most well-elaborated answers come from respondents 1, 2 and 8. The implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo faces various challenges that require a multi-stakeholder approach to address. Respondent 1 points out how territorial disputes and tensions have posed security risks that impact the implementation of green policies and directives, citing the construction of a hydroelectric plant on disputed territory as an example. Respondent 2 highlights the lack of resources, funding and technical expertise as significant barriers, pointing to the hindered implementation of the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan due to insufficient funding. Meanwhile, respondent 8 illustrates how the unresolved territorial dispute between Kosovo and Serbia negatively impacts the implementation of EU green policies and directives, citing the stalled construction of the Gazivode hydropower plant due to political and security issues as an example. These answers collectively underscore the significance of geopolitical tensions, capacity, governance and security risks in implementing EU green policies and directives in Kosovo.

Nevertheless, in response to the interview question related to the forms how of the Kosovo government reacted to EU green policies and directives with regard to political and security considerations, the respondents identified the following themes such as the Kosovo government’s support for EU green policies and directives, Political and security considerations in the implementation of green policies and directives, Challenges to the effective implementation of green policies and directives in Kosovo. In this regard, respondent 8 provided a comprehensive answer, discussing the government’s support for EU green policies and directives, commitments made under the Paris Agreement, and the challenges faced in implementing these policies and directives due to political and security considerations. Conversely, respondent 9 discussed the government’s steps to adopt green policies and directives and regulations, but also identified political instability, weak governance, corruption and territorial disputes as significant barriers to their implementation. To this end, respondent 2 highlighted how political considerations influenced the government’s response to EU green policies and directives, specifically in the construction of the Kosova e Re coal-fired power plant, which went against EU recommendations but was seen as necessary for energy security and economic development.

With respect to the final interview question, ‘In what ways has the EU played a role in promoting stability and security in Kosovo through its green policies and directives’, the following themes emerge, such as Financial support and technical assistance, Improving energy efficiency, Developing renewable energy sources, Promoting sustainable agriculture, Environmental sustainability and long-term peace, Financial assistance programmes, Promoting sustainable economic development, and Good governance and the rule of law

In this regard, respondents 1, 6 and 7 highlighted that the EU has promoted stability and security in Kosovo through its green policies and directives, with financial support and technical assistance. To this end, while respondents 2 and 3 discussed the EU’s efforts to improve energy efficiency and develop renewable energy sources, respondent 4 emphasised the EU’s efforts to promote sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, respondent 5 pointed out that the EU recognises the negative impacts of environmental degradation and pollution on social and economic stability, whereby respondent 8 highlighted the EU’s efforts to promote sustainable economic development and regional cooperation. Finally, respondent 9 emphasised the role of the EU in promoting good governance and the rule of law in Kosovo, ensuring the effective implementation of environmental policies and directives and protecting citizens’ rights. The EU’s green policies and directives in Kosovo have contributed to promoting stability and security in the region by addressing environmental challenges, supporting sustainable economic development, fostering regional cooperation and promoting good governance.

In response to the interview question related to how international organisations and NGOs have impacted the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo, the following themes emerge: Role of international organisations and NGOs in supporting the implementation of EU green policies and directives in Kosovo, Technical and financial assistance provided by international organisations and NGOs, Advocacy and awareness-raising efforts of NGOs, Community involvement in the implementation of green policies and directives, Promotion of green entrepreneurship and support for small and medium-sized enterprises, Challenges in community engagement, Environmental and social impacts of green initiatives.

To this end, respondents provided insights into the role of international organisations and NGOs in promoting EU green policies and directives in Kosovo. In this regard, respondent 1 highlighted the significant role of international organisations in providing technical and financial assistance, advocating for policy reforms, and engaging with local communities to promote sustainable development. Furthermore, respondent 2 emphasised the advocacy and monitoring efforts of NGOs in promoting sustainable development and the importance of transparency and accountability in the implementation of green policies and directives. Nonetheless, respondent 4 discussed the support provided by international organisations and NGOs in promoting green entrepreneurship and supporting small and medium-sized enterprises in Kosovo. Similarly, respondent 7 provided an example of community involvement in the implementation of an EU-funded project that aimed to promote sustainable development and green entrepreneurship through various activities. Conversely, respondent 8 highlighted the advocacy efforts of NGOs in promoting alternative solutions to green initiatives that are more sustainable and community-driven and stressed the importance of public participation in decision-making processes. Finally, respondent 10 discussed the advocacy and awareness-raising efforts of international organisations and NGOs in promoting environmental protection and sustainable development in Kosovo.