Free Independent Travelers (FITS) Travel Preferences and Behavior: A Post-Endemic Perspective

1 Clarke N. (2004). Free independent travellers? British working holiday makers in Australia. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 29(4), 499-509. DOI: 10.1111/j.00202754.2004.00144.x Search in Google Scholar

2 Hyde K.F., Lawson R. (2003). The nature of independent travel. Journal of Travel Research 42(1), 13-23. DOI: 10.1177/0047287503253944 Search in Google Scholar

3 Leith C. (2020). Tourism trends: Lifestyle developments and the links to solo tourism. Journal of Tourism Futures 6(3), 251-255. DOI: 10.1108/jtf-11-2019-0126 Search in Google Scholar

4 Yang E.C.L. (2021). What motivates and hinders people from travelling alone? A study of solo and non-solo travellers. Current Issues in Tourism 24(17), 2458-2471. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1839025 Search in Google Scholar

5 Hanafiah M.H., Md Zain N.A., Azinuddin M., Mior Shariffuddin N.S. (2021). I’m afraid to travel! Investigating the effect of perceived health risk on Malaysian travellers’ post-pandemic perception and future travel intention. Journal of Tourism Futures. EarlyCite. DOI: 10.1108/JTF-10-2021-0235 Search in Google Scholar

6 Rosselló J., Becken S., Santana-Gallego M. (2020). The effects of natural disasters on international tourism: A global analysis. Tourism Management 79, 104080. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104080 Search in Google Scholar

7 Holmes M.R., Dodds R., Frochot I. (2021). At home or abroad, does our behavior change? Examining how everyday behavior influences sustainable travel behavior and tourist clusters. Journal of Travel Research 60(1), 102-116. DOI: 10.1177/0047287519894070 Search in Google Scholar

8 Hall C.M., Scott D., Gössling S. (2020). Pandemics, transformations and tourism: Be careful what you wish for. Tourism Geographies 22(3), 123-144. DOI: 10.1080/14616688.2020.1759131 Search in Google Scholar

9 Hanafiah M., Balasingam A., Nair V., Salehuddin M., Mohd Zahari M.S., Jamaluddin M. (2021). Implications of COVID-19 on Tourism businesses in Malaysia: Evidence from a preliminary industry survey. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism 10(1), 81-94. Search in Google Scholar

10 Gupta V., Cahyanto I., Sajnani M., Shah C. (2023). Changing dynamics and travel evading: a case of Indian tourists amidst the COVID 19 pandemic. Journal of Tourism Futures 9(1), 84-100. DOI: 10.1108/jtf-04-2020-0061 Search in Google Scholar

11 Karagöz D., Işık C., Dogru T., Zhang L. (2021). Solo female travel risks, anxiety and travel intentions: Examining the moderating role of online psychological-social support. Current Issues in Tourism 24(11), 1595-1612. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1816929 Search in Google Scholar

12 Kong S., Zhu H. (2021). Unpacking millennial Chinese women’s risk perceptions in outbound travel: An intersectional perspective. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 49, 407-417. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.10.007 Search in Google Scholar

13 Wan Z., Huang S., Choi H.C. (2022). Modification and validation of the travel safety attitude scale (TSAS) in international tourism: A reflective-formative approach. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights 5(5), 1002-1021. DOI: 10.1108/jhti-01-2021-0012 Search in Google Scholar

14 Kourgiantakis M., Apostolakis A., Dimou I. (2020). COVID-19 and holiday intentions: The case of Crete, Greece. Anatolia 32(1), 148-151. DOI: 10.1080/13032917.2020.1781221 Search in Google Scholar

15 Ajzen I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 50(2), 179-211. Search in Google Scholar

16 Rozenkowska K. (2023). Theory of planned behavior in consumer behavior research: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Consumer Studies 47(6), 2670-2700. DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12970 Search in Google Scholar

17 Wasaya A., Prentice C., Hsiao A. (2024). Norms and consumer behaviors in tourism: A systematic literature review. Tourism Review 79(4), 923-938. DOI: 10.1108/tr-03-2023-0151 Search in Google Scholar

18 Kim S.B., Kwon K.J. (2018). Examining the relationships of image and attitude on visit intention to Korea among Tanzanian college students: The moderating effect of familiarity. Sustainability 10(2), 360-372. DOI: 10.3390/su10020360 Search in Google Scholar

19 Akdag G., Guler O., Dalgic A., Benli S., Cakici A.C. (2018). Do tourists’ gastronomic experiences differ within the same geographical region? A comparative study of two Mediterranean destinations. British Food Journal 120(1), 158-171. DOI: 10.1108/bfj-01-2017-0017 Search in Google Scholar

20 Fuchs G., Reichel A. (2011). An exploratory inquiry into destination risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies of first time vs. repeat visitors to a highly volatile destination. Tourism Management 32(2), 266-276. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2010.01.012 Search in Google Scholar

21 Tian Y., Zhang H., Jiang Y., Yang Y. (2022). Understanding trust and perceived risk in sharing accommodation: An extended elaboration likelihood model and moderated by risk attitude. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management 31(3), 348-368. DOI: 10.1080/19368623.2022.1986190 Search in Google Scholar

22 Hanafiah M.H., Zain A.M., Asyraff M.A., Makhasi G.Y.M. (2022). The roles of technology acceptance, user credibility and COVID-19 perceived health risk in tourist’s social media user-generated-content usage intention. Enlightening Tourism. A Pathmaking Journal 12(1), 337-365. DOI: 10.33776/et.v12i1.5427 Search in Google Scholar

23 Nazneen S., Hong X., Ud Din N. (2020). COVID-19 crises and tourist travel risk perceptions. SSRN Electronic Journal, 3592321. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3592321 Search in Google Scholar

24 Wolff K., Larsen S., Øgaard T. (2019). How to define and measure risk perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research 79, 102759. DOI: 10.1016/j.annals.2019.102759 Search in Google Scholar

25 Li J., Nguyen T.H.O., Coca-Stefaniak J.A. (2020). Coronavirus impacts on post-pandemic planned travel behaviours. Annals of Tourism Research 86, 102964. DOI: 10.1016/j.annals.2020.102964 Search in Google Scholar

26 Bae S., Chang P. (2020). The effect of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) risk perception on behavioural intention towards ‘untact’ tourism in South Korea during the first wave of the pandemic (March 2020). Current Issues in Tourism 24(7), 1017-1035. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1798895 Search in Google Scholar

27 Neuburger L., Egger R. (2020). Travel risk perception and travel behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020: A case study of the DACH region. Current Issues in Tourism 24(7), 1003-1016. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020.1803807 Search in Google Scholar

28 Sánchez-Cañizares S., Cabeza-Ramírez L., Muñoz Fernández G., Fuentes-García F. (2020). Impact of the perceived risk from COVID-19 on intention to travel. Current Issues in Tourism 24(7), 970-984. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2020. 1829571 Search in Google Scholar

29 Kaulu B., Kabala E., Mapoma R., Munyonzwe C. (2020). Risk perception, behavioural response to COVID-19, and the mediating role of information sources in Zambia. Southern African Journal of Policy and Development 5(1), 8-15. Search in Google Scholar

30 Zain N.A.M., Hanafiah M.H., Hamizan N.A., Asyraff M.A. (2022). COVID-19 safety and preventive measures and social norms: How it shaped airlines passengers’ trustworthiness. Journal of Tourism and Services 24(13), 90-107. DOI: 10.29036/jots.v13i24.299 Search in Google Scholar

31 Park S., Tussyadiah I.P. (2017). Multidimensional facets of perceived risk in mobile travel booking. Journal of Travel Research 56(7), 854-867. Search in Google Scholar

32 Cui F., Liu Y., Chang Y., Duan J., Li J. (2016). An overview of tourism risk perception. Natural Hazards 82, 643-658. DOI: 10.1007/s11069-016-2208-1 Search in Google Scholar

33 Sohail A., Akritidis J., McGuinness S., Leder K. (2023). Perceptions of travel-related health risks and pre-travel health-seeking behaviour among students: A qualitative analysis. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 52, 102532. DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2022.102532 Search in Google Scholar

34 Hair Jr J.F., Sarstedt J., Hopkins L., Kuppelwieser V.G. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): An emerging tool in business research. European Business Review 26(2), 106-121. DOI: 10.1108/EBR-10-2013-0128 Search in Google Scholar

35 Li L., Nam Y., Yang S.B. (2019). Exploring the movements of Chinese free independent travelers in the US: a social network analysis approach. Asia Pacific Journal of Information Systems 29(3), 448-467. DOI: 10.14329/apjis.2019.29.3.448 Search in Google Scholar

36 Islam N., Sharp S.J. Chowell G., Shabnam S., Kawachi I. et al. (2020). Physical distancing interventions and incidence of coronavirus disease 2019: Natural experiment in 149 countries. BMJ 370, m2743. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.m2743 Search in Google Scholar

37 Liu Y., Shi H., Li Y., Amin A. (2021). Factors influencing Chinese residents’ post-pandemic outbound travel intentions: An extended theory of planned behaviour model based on the perception of COVID-19. Tourism Review 76(4), 871-891. DOI: 10.1108/tr-09-2020-0458 Search in Google Scholar

38 Chua B.L., Al-Ansi A., Lee M.J., Han H. (2020). Tourists’ outbound travel behavior in the aftermath of the COVID-19: Role of corporate social responsibility, response effort, and health prevention. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 29(6), 879-906. DOI: 10.1080/09669582.2020.1849236 Search in Google Scholar

39 Moser C.A., Kalton G. (2017). Survey methods in social investigation. Routledge. Search in Google Scholar

40 Gray D.E. (2019). Doing research in the business world. SAGE Publications. Search in Google Scholar

41 Hair J.F., Risher J.J., Sarstedt M., Ringle C.M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review 31(1), 2-24. DOI: 10.1108/ebr-11-2018-0203 Search in Google Scholar

42 Sarstedt M., Ringle C.M., Hair J.F. (2021). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. In: C. Homburg, M. Klarmann, A.E. Vomberg (eds), Handbook of Market Research. Springer, Cham. Search in Google Scholar

43 Hanafiah M.H. (2020). Formative vs. reflective measurement model: Guidelines for structural equation modeling research. International Journal of Analysis and Applications 18(5), 876-889. DOI: 10.28924/2291-8639-18-2020-876 Search in Google Scholar

44 Ramayah T.J.F.H., Cheah J., Chuah F., Ting H., Memon M.A. (2018). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using smartPLS 3.0. Kuala Lumpur: Pearson Malaysia. Search in Google Scholar

45 Hulland J. (1999). Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: a review of four recent studies. Strategic Management Journal 20(2), 195-204. DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199902)20:2<195::aid-smj13>3.0.co;2-7 Search in Google Scholar

46 Nunnally J.C., Bernstein I.H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Search in Google Scholar

47 Ali F., Rasoolimanesh S.M., Sarstedt M., Ringle C.M., Ryu K. (2018). An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in hospitality research. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 30(1), 514-538. DOI: 10.1108/ijchm-10-2016-0568 Search in Google Scholar

48 Henseler J., Ringle C.M., Sarstedt M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 43(1), 115-135. DOI: 10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 Search in Google Scholar

49 Vinzi E.V., Chin W.W., Henseler J., Wang H. (2010). Handbook of partial least squares. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. Search in Google Scholar

50 Aziz N.A., Long F. (2022). To travel, or not to travel? The impacts of travel constraints and perceived travel risk on travel intention among Malaysian tourists amid the COVID‐19. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 21(2), 352-362. DOI: 10.1002/cb.2008 Search in Google Scholar

51 Luo J., Lam C.H. (2020). Travel anxiety, risk attitude and travel intentions towards “travel bubble” destinations in Hong Kong: Effect of the fear of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(21), 7859. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17217859 Search in Google Scholar

52 Perić G., Dramićanin S., Conić M. (2021). The impact of Serbian tourists’ risk perception on their travel intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Tourism Research 27, 2705. DOI: 10.54055/ejtr.v27i.2125 Search in Google Scholar

53 Chen Y., Dai Y., Liu An., Liu W., Jia L. (2021). Can the COVID-19 risk perception affect tourists’ responsible behaviour intention: An application of the structural equation model. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 31(9), 2042-2061. DOI: 10.1080/09669582.2021.1977938 Search in Google Scholar

54 Susanto A., Amelia A., Amadea C., Hendriana E. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 outbreak towards the post pandemic leisure travel intention. Journal of Tourism, Hospitality & Culinary Arts 13(2), 54-71. Search in Google Scholar