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Families first: A comparative study of company responses to paid care leave programs in the COVID-19 pandemic

Tracey Freiberg
Tracey Freiberg
   | 04 gru 2023
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Data publikacji: 04 gru 2023
Zakres stron: -
Otrzymano: 02 lut 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajolp-2023-0005
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© 2023 Tracey Freiberg, published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Large Company Dataset Binary Logistic Regressions: Implicit Variables

Covariatesa,b Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Change in # of Locations (CLOC) Change in Operating Hours (COPH) Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (DRETS) Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (CREVG) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST)c 1.452* (0.178) 1.308 (0.184) 0.775 (0.172) 1.378 (0.246) 1.132 (0.185) 1.958* (0.265) 1.102 (0.169)
Industry (IND) 1.009 (0.055) 0.990 (0.053) 0.977 (0.053) 1.017 (0.071) 1.079 (0.058) 0.949 (0.072) 0.985 (0.054)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - -
  Boston 0.619 (0.447) 1.917 (0.445) 1.019 (0.432) 1.853 (0.594) 1.301 (0.474) 1.138 (0.564) 0.514 (0.438)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 1.680 (0.429) 1.521 (0.429) 0.764 (0.417) 0.689 (0.579) 1.379 (0.466) 0.646 (0.517) 0.416* (0.422)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 0.710 (0.460) 1.154 (0.450) 0.574 (0.454) 1.719 (0.594) 1.193 (0.478) 1.124 (0.583) 1.566 (0.457)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 0.931 (0.538) 1.277 (0.127) 1.300* (0.119) 0.972 (0.147) 0.866 (0.111) 1.208 (0.156) 0.965 (0.105)
_Constant 0.216 (1.045) 0.044** (1.179) 0.845 (1.020) 0.041* (1.461) 0.152 (1.092) 0.015** (1.607) 1.290 (0.999)
Observations 121 121 121 121 121 121 121

Outcome Variables

Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Change in Headcount (CHEAD) Increase in Prices (IPRICE)
Decrease in Headcount (DHEAD) Change in # of Locations (CLOC)
Re-classification (RCLASS) Change in Operating Hours (COPH)
Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (DRETS)
Decrease in Independent Contractors (DINDC) Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (CREVG)
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (NEXPCL) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW)
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT)
Change in Benefits (CBENE)
Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (DWAGE)
Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (MPSL)
Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL)
Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST)

Summary of Survey Respondents by Demographic Information

Firm Characteristic N %
Job Title, Level, or Responsibilitya
  C-Level (e.g. CEO, CFO), Owner, Partner, President 92 30.1%
  Vice President (EVP, SVP, AVP, VP) 14 4.6%
  Director (Group Director, Sr. Director, Director) 39 12.7%
  Manager (Group Manager, Sr. Manager, Manager, Program Manager) 161 52.6%
Large Company Subset: Job Title, Level, or Responsibilitya
  C-Level (e.g. CEO, CFO), Owner, Partner, President 21 17.4%
  Vice President (EVP, SVP, AVP, VP) 7 5.8%
  Director (Group Director, Sr. Director, Director) 18 14.9%
  Manager (Group Manager, Sr. Manager, Manager, Program Manager) 75 62.0%
Small Company Subset: Job Title, Level, or Responsibilitya
  C-Level (e.g. CEO, CFO), Owner, Partner, President 71 38.4%
  Vice President (EVP, SVP, AVP, VP) 7 3.8%
  Director (Group Director, Sr. Director, Director) 21 11.4%
  Manager (Group Manager, Sr. Manager, Manager, Program Manager) 86 46.4%
Age
  Under 21 3 1.0%
  21–34 75 24.5%
  35–44 156 51.0%
  45–54 35 11.4%
  55–64 25 8.2%
  65+ 12 3.9%
Genderb
  Female 99 32.4%
  Male 207 67.6%
Race and Ethnicity
  White 266 86.9%
  Black or African American 21 6.9%
  American Indian or Alaska Native 2 0.7%
  Asian 12 3.9%
  Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander 0 0.0%
  Hispanic/Latinx 15 4.9%
Education
  Less than High School Degree 1 0.3%
  High School Graduate (high school diploma or equivalent/GED) 16 5.2%
  Some College but No Degree 15 4.9%
  Associate Degree in College (2-year) 14 4.6%
  Bachelor's Degree in College (4-year) 104 34.0%
  Master's Degree 113 36.9%
  Doctoral Degree 22 7.2%
  Professional Degree (JD, MD) 21 6.9%

Full Dataset Binary Logistic Regressions

Covariates Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST) Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Change in # of Locations (CLOC) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 1.339** (0.107) 1.468** (0.108) 1.451** (0.123) 1.359* (0.122)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 0.515* (0.321) 1.145 (0.318) 0.422* (0.346) 1.977 (0.359)
  100–200 0.845 (0.408) 0.562 (0.452) 0.537 (0.462) 1.488 (0.483)
  200–500 1.185 (0.336) 1.480 (0.344) 0.521 (0.390) 2.798** (0.378)
  500+ - - - -
Industry (IND) 1.014 (0.028) 0.992 (0.029) 1.064* (0.031) 0.969 (0.031)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - -
  Boston 1.171 (0.264) 0.662 (0.264) 1.709 (0.292) 1.212 (0.294)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - -
  No 1.117 (0.270) 1.430 (0.276) 1.088 (0.297) 0.720 (0.296)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - -
  No 0.590 (0.275) 0.578* (0.278) 0.906 (0.298) 0.674 (0.312)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 1.071 (0.058) 0.969 (0.057) 1.069 (0.065) 1.049 (0.063)
_Constant 0.184** (0.634) 0.233* (0.633) 0.047** (0.741) 0.105** (0.726)
N 306 306 306 306

Full Dataset Multivariate Binary Logistic Regressions: Implicit Variables

Covariatesa,b Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Change in # of Locations (CLOC) Change in Operating Hours (COPH) Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (DRETS) Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (CREVG) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST)c 1.468** (0.108) 1.451** (0.123) 0.951 (0.102) 1.143 (0.150) 1.103 (0.105) 1.359* (0.122) 1.220 (0.107)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 1.145 (0.318) 0.422* (0.346) 1.029 (0.311) 0.930 (0.426) 1.684 (0.316) 1.977 (0.359) 0.582 (0.326)
  100–200 0.562 (0.452) 0.537 (0.462) 0.542 (0.443) 0.527 (0.673) 1.012 (0.440) 1.488 (0.483) 0.591 (0.438)
  200–500 1.480 (0.344) 0.521 (0.390) 1.148 (0.340) 0.722 (0.516) 1.728 (0.352) 2.798** (0.378) 0.952 (0.344)
  500+ - - - - - - -
Industry (IND) 0.992 (0.029) 1.064* (0.031) 1.010 (0.028) 1.014 (0.038) 1.065* (0.028) 0.969 (0.031) 1.003 (0.029)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - -
  Boston 0.662 (0.264) 1.709 (0.292) 1.606 (0.263) 1.545 (0.374) 1.450 (0.267) 1.212 (0.294) 0.647 (0.266)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 1.430 (0.276) 1.088 (0.297) 0.590* (0.268) 0.481 (0.382) 0.803 (0.278) 0.720 (0.296) 0.537* (0.271)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 0.578* (0.278) 0.906 (0.298) 0.636 (0.275) 1.882 (0.384) 1.101 (0.276) 0.674 (0.312) 1.115 (0.279)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 0.969 (0.057) 1.069 (0.065) 1.121* (0.058) 1.010 (0.082) 0.903 (0.057) 1.049 (0.063) 0.905 (0.058)
_Constant 0.233* (0.633) 0.047** (0.741) 0.561 (0.610) 0.088** (0.883) 0.212* (0.624) 0.105** (0.726) 0.898 (0.622)
N 306 306 306 306 306 306 306

Significance Scorecard

Outcome Full Dataset Large Companies Small Companies
Explicit Outcomes
Change in Headcount (CHEAD) X X
Decrease in Headcount (DHEAD) X X
Re-classification (RCLASS) X X X
Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) X X*
Decrease in Independent Contractors (DINDC) X X
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (NEXPCL) X X
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) X X*
Change in Benefits (CBENE) X X X
Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (DWAGE) X X
Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (MPSL) X X
Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL) X X* X
Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST) X* X*
Implicit Outcomes
Increase in Prices (IPRICE) X* X* X*
Change in # of Locations (CLOC) X* X*
Change in Operating Hours (COPH) X X
Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (DRETS) X
Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (CREVG) X
Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW) X* X*
Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT) X X X*

Summary of Surveyed Companies

Firm Characteristic N %
Geography
  New York (NY) 155 50.7%
  Boston (MA) 151 49.3%
Employee Counta
  0–100 92 30.1%
  100–200 36 11.8%
  200–500 57 18.6%
  More than 500 121 39.5%
Industryb
  Accommodation and Food Services 12 3.9%
  Administrative Support and Waste Management
  Remediation Services 0 0.0%
  Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, Hunting 5 1.6%
  Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 10 3.3%
  Construction 22 7.2%
  Educational Services 19 6.2%
  Finance and Insurance 33 10.8%
  Health Care and Social Assistance 24 7.8%
  Information 62 20.3%
  Management of Companies and Enterprises 8 2.6%
  Manufacturing 22 7.2%
  Mining 0 0.0%
  Other Services (except Public Administration) 10 3.3%
  Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services 47 15.4%
  Public Administration 4 1.3%
  Real Estate Rental and Leasing 3 1.0%
  Retail Trade 11 3.6%
  Transportation and Warehousing 6 2.0%
  Utilities 6 2.0%
  Wholesale Trade 2 0.7%
Cost Concern
  Extremely unconcerned (1) 24 7.8%
  Somewhat unconcerned (2) 55 18.0%
  Neither concerned nor unconcerned (3) 60 19.6%
  Somewhat concerned (4) 105 34.3%
  Extremely concerned (5) 62 20.3%
PCL Policies Used in 2020c
  Company-sponsored paid family or sick leave 194 63.4%
  Company-sponsored vacation or other PTO 123 40.2%
  FFCRA 40 13.1%
  NYS-PFL 0 0.0%
  Other 5 1.6%
Company-Sponsored PCL Policiesc
  Parental Leave 116 37.9%
  Maternity Leave 105 34.3%
  Paternity Leave 71 23.2%
  Adoption Leave 55 18.0%
  Foster Child Leave 41 13.4%
  Paid Surrogacy Leave 29 9.5%
  General Family Leave 82 26.8%
  Short-Term Disability Leave 104 34.0%
  General (Short-Term) Sick Leave 105 34.3%
  General Paid Time Off (PTO) covers all leave 81 26.5%
  Other 5 1.5%

Reliability and Validity Statistics

Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha 0.622 0.493
Chi-Squared All Significant at 5% All Significant at 5% except Q88_5
Revised Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alphaa 0.651 0.507b
Chi-Squared All Significant at 5% All Significant at 5%

List of Original Outcome Variables Measured in Survey

Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Change in Headcount (Q32) Increase in Prices (Q123_1)
Increase in Headcount (Q33_1) Decrease in Prices (Q123_7)
Decrease in Headcount (Q33_2) Change in # of Locations (Q123_2)
Re-classification (Q33_3) Change in Operating Hours (Q123_3)
Increase in Independent Contractors (Q33_4) Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (Q123_6)
Decrease in Independent Contractors (Q33_5) Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (Q88_1)
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (Q76_2) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (Q88_3)
Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (Q76_4) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (Q88_4)
New Business Continuity Planning – New or Expanded PCL (Q82_2) Employee Productivity Measure – Employee Morale (Q88_5)
New Business Continuity Planning – Layoffs or Furloughs(Q82_4) Absenteeism Monitor (Q13)
Change in Benefits (Q52) Existing Business Continuity Plan (Y/N) (Q71)
Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (Q55_2) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Remote Work (Q76_1)
Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (Q55_4) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Health and Safety Measures (Q76_7)
Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (Q55_5) New Business Continuity Plan – Remote Work (Q82_1)
Change in PCL after NYS-PFL (Q6) New Business Continuity Plan – Health and Safety Measures (Q82_7)
Change in PCL after MA-PFML (Q105)
Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (Q88_2)

Institutional Details: PCL Policy Information, as of January 2021

State Title Date of Passage Status Eligibility Provisions
New York New York State Paid Family Leave (NYS-PFL) 2016 Effective 2018; leave duration will expand every year through 2021 Employed by a covered employer for 26 consecutive weeks (or 175 days for part-time employees)

Eligible beneficiaries receive 50% of weekly wages for up to 8 weeks in a 12-month period to care for a personal illness, seriously ill family member or to bond with a new child; funded through employee payroll deductions as an extension of the existing Temporary Disability Insurance (TDI) deduction

2021 Expansion: increased weekly wages to 67% of weekly wages and 12 weeks
Massachusetts Massachusetts Paid Family and Medical Leave Act (MA-PFMLA) 2018 Effective 2021 Earned at least $4,700 in the previous four calendar quarters and 30x weekly unemployment benefit that person would be able to collect Eligible beneficiaries receive up to 80% of weekly wages for 12 weeks paid leave to care for a family member or bond with new child; 20 weeks paid leave for own illness; “a percentage of weekly income” with a max of $850
Nationwide

Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA)

Only applicable to companies with less than 500 employees

 		2020

April 1, 2020 – December 31, 2020

After December 31, 2020, a voluntary policy is eligible for tax credit through September 30, 2021.

 		Employed for 30 calendar days by the employer

Two weeks (80 hours) of fully paid sick leave, partial pay (66%) care leave for illness or minor dependent child with a school closure, or 10 weeks partial pay (66%) paid family and medical leave for incidents related to COVID-19 in 2020 only.

Covered employers apply for a tax credit reimbursement for all qualifying wages covered up to the specified payment caps; includes payments to extend or maintain health insurance coverage.

Large Company Subset Binary Logistic Regressions

Covariates Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL) Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 1.663* (0.209) 1.452* (0.178) 1.958* (0.265)
Industry (IND) 1.007 (0.065) 1.009 (0.055) 0.949 (0.072)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - -
  Boston 0.931 (0.503) 0.619 (0.447) 1.138 (0.564)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - -
  No 0.752 (0.467) 1.680 (0.429) 0.646 (0.517)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - -
  No 0.623 (0.539) 0.710 (0.460) 1.124 (0.583)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 0.830 (0.114) 0.931 (0.538) 1.208 (0.156)
_Constant 0.172 (1.118) 0.216 (1.045) 0.015** (1.607)
N 121 121 121

Available Policies for New York and Boston-area Companies in 2020

Metro Area (State) Mandatory policies for companies with less than 500 employees Mandatory policies for companies with more than 500 employees
New York (NY)

• NYS-PFL

• FFCRA

 		• NYS-PFL
Boston (MA) • FFCRA • N/A

Small Company Subset Logistic Regressions

Covariatesa Explicit Variables Implicit Variables
Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST) Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Change in # of Locations (CLOC) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 1.693* (0.241) 1.480* (0.190) 1.361* (0.139) 1.497** (0.139) 1.657** (0.180) 1.323* (0.142)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 0.263* (0.599) 0.390 (0.513) 0.422* (0.382) 0.808 (0.377) 0.803 (0.449) 0.575 (0.388)
  100–200 0.353 (0.725) 1.434 (0.527) 0.699 (0.450) 0.391 (0.489) 1.131 (0.544) 0.621 (0.477)
  200–500 - - - - - -
Industry (IND) 1.011 (0.059) 1.015 (0.045) 1.020 (0.034) 0.987 (0.034) 1.100* (0.040) 1.011 (0.035)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - -
  Boston 0.514 (0.576) 1.010 (0.451) 1.161 (0.352) 0.693 (0.343) 1.511 (0.410) 0.783 (0.351)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - -
  No 1.118 (0.532) 1.229 (0.444) 0.696 (0.371) 0.787 (0.368) 1.230 (0.414) 1.509 (0.364)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - -
  No 4.473* (0.696) 3.148* (0.509) 1.848 (0.363) 2.025* (0.358) 1.230 (0.414) 1.160 (0.364)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 1.182 (0.114) 1.061 (0.092) 1.052 (0.071) 0.991 (0.069) 1.005 (0.081) 0.889 (0.070)
_Constant 0.008** (1.438) 0.021** (1.138) 0.144* (0.815) 0.215* (0.786) 0.012** (1.076) 0.330 (0.806)
N 185 185 185 185 185 185

Large Company Dataset Binary Logistic Regressions with Categorical Variables: Explicit Variables

Covariatesa Change in Headcountb (CHEAD) Decrease in Headcount (DHEAD) Re-classification (RCLASS) Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) Decrease in Independent Contractors (DINDC) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (NEXPCL) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) Change in Benefitsb (CBENE) Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (DWAGE) Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (MPSL) Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL) Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 0.853 (0.198) 0.934 (0.171) 0.994 (0.182) 1.032 (0.265) 1.007 (0.219) 1.110 (0.186) 0.975 (0.199) 0.815 (0.195) 0.839 (0.210) 1.161 (0.171) 1.663* (0.209) 1.325 (0.170)
Industry (IND) 1.110 (0.061) 0.894* (0.055) 0.959 (0.060) 0.917 (0.089) 1.103 (0.079) 1.011 (0.058) 0.951 (0.066) 1.049 (0.058) 0.957 (0.073) 0.941 (0.054) 1.007 (0.065) 0.992 (0.052)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - - - - - - -
  Boston 4.434** (0.512) 0.864 (0.441) 0.484 (0.491) 1.141 (0.666) 0.229* (0.701) 1.420 (0.478) 0.426 (0.539) 4.287** (0.500) 0.599 (0.579) 1.192 (0.438) 0.931 (0.503) 1.279 (0.429)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 0.982 (0.514) 0.779 (0.425) 0.362* (0.458) 1.518 (0.648) 0.884 (0.574) 0.789 (0.463) 1.006 (0.482) 0.574 (0.506) 0.669 (0.535) 0.722 (0.421) 0.752 (0.467) 0.799 (0.409)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 0.948 (0.532) 1.097 (0.456) 1.239 (0.499) 0.307 (0.837) 2.231 (0.579) 1.067 (0.492) 0.658 (0.550) 2.008 (0.506) 0.545 (0.638) 1.192 (0.438) 0.623 (0.539) 0.707 (0.439)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 0.957 (0.132) 1.108 (0.110) 0.902 (0.109) 0.881 (0.148) 0.884 (0.127) 0.900 (0.112) 1.179 (0.136) 1.105 (0.139) 0.964 (0.130) 0.722 (0.421) 0.830 (0.114) 1.119 (0.107)
_Constant 0.114 (1.154) 1.563 (1.032) 2.198 (1.088) 0.459 (1.516) 0.151 (1.356) 0.339 (1.086) 0.339 (1.245) 0.143 (1.167) 1.210 (1.248) 0.920 (0.104) 0.172 (1.118) 0.215 (1.013)
Observations 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121 121

Small Company Dataset Multivariate Binary Logistic Regressions with Categorical Variables: Explicit Variables

Covariatesa Change in Headcountb (CHEAD) Decrease in Headcount (DHEAD) Re-classification (RCLASS) Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) Decrease in Independent Contractors (DINDC) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (NEXPCL) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) Change in Benefitsb (CBENE) Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (DWAGE) Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (MPSL) Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL) Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 0.900 (0.133) 1.084 (0.142) 1.303 (0.170) 1.693* (0.241) 0.985 (0.177) 1.043 (0.166) 1.480* (0.190) 0.853 (0.144) 1.492 (0.246) 1.022 (0.148) 1.001 (0.165) 1.361* (0.139)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 2.131 (0.396) 0.586 (0.398) 0.313* (0.463) 0.263* (0.599) 1.435 (0.519) 0.206** (0.501) 0.390 (0.513) 8.299** (0.500) 0.102** (0.850) 0.407* (0.414) 0.244** (0.466) 0.422* (0.382)
  100–200 2.229 (0.471) 0.727 (0.480) 0.750 (0.508) 0.353 (0.725) 0.634 (0.728) 0.929 (0.488) 1.434 (0.527) 5.126* (0.571) 1.095 (0.631) 0.611 (0.488) 0.410 (0.538) 0.699 (0.450)
  200–500 - - - - - - - - - - - -
Industry (IND) 0.980 (0.033) 1.018 (0.035) 1.027 (0.042) 1.011 (0.059) 0.998 (0.048) 0.984 (0.043) 1.015 (0.045) 1.014 (0.035) 0.894 (0.067) 0.971 (0.037) 0.995 (0.043) 1.020 (0.034)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - - - - - - -
  Boston 1.918 (0.342) 2.287* (0.375) 0.985 (0.415) 0.514 (0.576) 0.728 (0.474) 1.285 (0.429) 1.010 (0.451) 2.224* (0.370) 1.376 (0.598) 2.052 (0.390) 1.087 (0.424) 1.161 (0.352)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 1.267 (0.370) 1.644 (0.371) 1.143 (0.420) 1.118 (0.532) 1.090 (0.483) 0.901 (0.441) 1.229 (0.444) 1.664 (0.408) 0.501 (0.636) 1.647 (0.388) 0.714 (0.461) 0.696 (0.371)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 0.515 (0.348) 1.681 (0.381) 1.767 (0.442) 4.473* (0.696) 2.686 (0.535) 1.627 (0.4574) 3.148* (0.509) 0.460* (0.375) 7.702* (0.843) 1.148 (0.396) 0.999 (0.443) 1.848 (0.363)
Manager (LMAN) 1.013 (0.069) 1.063 (0.074) 0.949 (0.083) 1.182 (0.114) 0.940 (0.093) 0.859 (0.086) 1.061 (0.092) 1.004 (0.075) 0.909 (0.119) 1.027 (0.076) 0.956 (0.085) 1.052 (0.071)
_Constant 0.557 (0.771) 0.112* (0.853) 0.108* (0.992) 0.008** (1.438) 0.112* (1.053) 0.524 (0.976) 0.021** (1.138) 0.154* (0.871) 0.045* (1.512) 0.331 (0.867) 0.633 (0.958) 0.144* (0.815)
Observations 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185

Small Company Dataset Multivariate Binary Logistic Regressions: Implicit Variables

Covariatesa,b Increase in Prices (IPRICE) Change in # of Locations (CLOC) Change in Operating Hours (COPH) Reduce Returns to Capital/Profits (DRETS) Employee Productivity Measure – Altered Revenue Goals (CREVG) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Renewal Rate (CRENEW) Employee Productivity Measure – Customer Satisfaction (CSAT)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST)c 1.497** (0.139) 1.657** (0.180) 1.047 (0.134) 1.000 (0.197) 1.089 (0.131) 1.198 (0.141) 1.323* (0.142)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 0.808 (0.377) 0.803 (0.449) 0.803 (0.376) 1.383 (0.557) 1.034 (0.371) 0.705 (0.386) 0.575 (0.388)
  100–200 0.391 (0.489) 1.131 (0.544) 0.466 (0.486) 0.730 (0.762) 0.612 (0.477) 0.531 (0.495) 0.621 (0.477)
  200–500 - - - - - - -
Industry (IND) 0.987 (0.034) 1.100* (0.040) 1.028 (0.034) 1.012 (0.047) 1.064 (0.033) 0.975 (0.035) 1.011 (0.035)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - -
  Boston 0.693 (0.343) 1.511 (0.410) 2.035* (0.353) 1.356 (0.506) 1.505 (0.338) 1.375 (0.361) 0.783 (0.351)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 0.787 (0.368) 1.230 (0.414) 1.981 (0.358) 2.934* (0.515) 1.754 (0.355) 1.292 (0.369) 1.509 (0.364)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - -
  No 2.025* (0.358) 1.230 (0.414) 1.585 (0.359) 0.454 (0.522) 0.983 (0.347) 1.731 (0.375) 1.160 (0.364)
Manager (LMAN) 0.991 (0.069) 1.005 (0.081) 1.076 (0.070) 1.026 (0.100) 0.922 (0.068) 1.016 (0.071) 0.889 (0.070)
_Constant 0.215* (0.786) 0.012** (1.076) 0.152* (0.802) 0.085* (1.146) 0.257 (0.766) 0.206 (0.820) 0.330 (0.806)
Observations 185 185 185 185 185 185 185

Full Dataset Multivariate Binary Logistic Regressions with Categorical Variables: Explicit Variables

Covariatesa Change in Headcountb (CHEAD) Decrease in Headcount (DHEAD) Re-classification (RCLASS) Increase in Independent Contractors (IINDC) Decrease in Independent Contractors (DINDC) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – New or Expanded PCL (NEXPCL) Existing Business Continuity Plan Changes – Layoffs or Furloughs (LAYFUR) Change in Benefitsb (CBENE) Change in Company Benefits – Decrease in Wages (DWAGE) Change in Company Benefits – More PSL (MPSL) Change in Company Benefits – More PFL (MPFL) Employee Productivity Measure – Cost (EMPCOST)
PCL Cost Concern (PCOST) 0.881 (0.108) 1.026 (0.106) 1.133 (0.120) 1.343 (0.171) 0.968 (0.134) 1.052 (0.122) 1.224 (0.134) 0.836 (0.115) 1.056 (0.153) 1.083 (0.110) 1.241 (0.126) 1.339** (0.107)
Firm Size (SIZE)
  0–100 1.890* (0.325) 0.716 (0.329) 0.365* (0.407) 0.809 (0.547) 0.999 (0.414) 0.224** (0.454) 0.539 (0.440) 2.526** (0.332) 0.113** (0.784) 0.406* (0.352) 0.316** (0.420) 0.515* (0.321)
  100–200 2.121 (0.422) 0.781 (0.431) 0.785 (0.469) 0.989 (0.706) 0.463 (0.669) 1.032 (0.443) 1.603 (0.474) 1.580 (0.437) 0.942 (0.554) 0.592 (0.443) 0.561 (0.508) 0.845 (0.408)
  200–500 0.957 (0.390) 1.058 (0.348) 1.030 (0.369) 2.822* (0.465) 0.761 (0.467) 1.120 (0.370) 1.182 (0.404) 0.306* (0.497) 0.883 (0.451) 0.948 (0.348) 1.249 (0.365) 1.185 (0.336)
  500+ - - - - - - - - - - - -
Industry (IND) 1.013 (0.028) 0.974 (0.029) 1.003 (0.034) 0.980 (0.048) 1.023 (0.040) 0.995 (0.034) 0.990 (0.037) 1.028 (0.030) 0.929 (0.048) 0.956 (0.030) 0.994 (0.035) 1.014 (0.028)
Location (HQ)
  New York - - - - - - - - - - - -
  Boston 2.754** (0.275) 1.409 (0.271) 0.663 (0.306) 0.693 (0.416) 0.465* (0.366) 1.320 (0.311) 0.685 (0.333) 2.982** (0.290) 0.879 (0.398) 1.512 (0.280) 0.942 (0.309) 1.171 (0.264)
Firm-Sponsored PSL (FPSL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 0.869 (0.294) 0.671 (0.274) 0.575 (0.298) 1.171 (0.397) 0.880 (0.357) 0.968 (0.314) 0.890 (0.323) 0.616 (0.313) 0.999 (0.382) 0.651 (0.282) 1.039 (0.313) 1.117 (0.270)
Firm-Sponsored PFL (FPFL)
  Yes - - - - - - - - - - - -
  No 1.514 (0.281) 0.816 (0.283) 0.855 (0.321) 0.262* (0.529) 0.876 (0.372) 0.762 (0.326) 0.474* (0.367) 2.023* (0.296) 0.324* (0.488) 0.988 (0.290) 0.817 (0.325) 0.590 (0.275)
Level of Responding Manager (LMAN) 1.013 (0.061) 1.058 (0.060) 0.919 (0.066) 1.064 (0.090) 0.904 (0.074) 0.873* (0.067) 1.081 (0.074) 1.033 (0.065) 0.907 (0.084) 0.984 (0.061) 0.923 (0.067) 1.071 (0.058)
_Constant 0.258* (0.638) 0.560 (0.631) 0.628 (0.706) 0.051** (1.049) 0.412 (0.790) 0.571 (0.712) 0.149* (0.802) 0.273 (0.666) 0.758 (0.905) 0.779 (0.647) 0.278 (0.737) 0.184** (0.634)
N 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306 306
eISSN:
2193-9004
Język:
Angielski
Częstotliwość wydawania:
Volume Open
Dziedziny czasopisma:
Business and Economics, Political Economics, Microeconomics, Macroecomics, Economic Policy, Mathematics and Statistics for Economists, Econometrics
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