| | Soil aggregation (+) | High specific surface area | BC, Z |
| | Soil aeration (+) | High porosity | BC, Z |
Scarcity of fertile | Degraded soils | Infiltration rates (+) | Liming of acidic soils | BC, L |
land | Compacted soil | pH of acidic soils (+) | CEC | BC, Z |
| | C-sequestration (+) | Flocculation | |
| | Soil erosion (−) | Polymerization | |
| Degraded soils | | High specific surface area | BC, Z |
Water increasingly | | Stress resilience against desiccation (+) | | BC, Z |
| Desertification of soil | | High porosity | |
scarce | Reduced crop yield | Improve water-holding capacity and capillarity (+) | CEC | BC, Z BC, Z |
| | | High specific surface area | BC, Z |
Inefficiency of fertil- | Degraded soils | Reduce leaching (sorption) (+) | High porosity | BC, Z |
izer use | Overfertilization | Improve nutrient supply to plants (+) | CEC | BC, Z |
| | crop yield per resource (+) | Buffer capacity | L |
| | | High specific surface area | BC, Z |
| | Nutrient immobilization | High porosity | BC, Z |
Reduce greenhouse | Compacted soil | Increased nutrient use efficiency (+) | CEC | BC, Z |
gas emissions | | Improve soil aeration (+) | Molecular sieve | |
| | | Flocculation | |
| | | High specific surface area | |
| | | High porosity | BC, Z BC, Z |
| | Detoxification (+) | CEC | BC, Z |
Contaminated land | Contaminated soils | Sorption (+) | Molecular sieve | |
| | Immobilization (+) | Buffer capacity | |
| | | Declined solubility of metals in soil solution | |