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Figure 1
Mean (± SD) changes in the viability of HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine (0.39–100 µmol/L) for 24 h relative to control (untreated cells). Concentrations found in human plasma upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L) are framed in red. Positive control – staurosporine (2 µmol/L); &P<0.05; #P<0.01; $P<0.001; *P<0.0001 vs control (untreated cells)
Figure 2
Changes in comet tail intensity of HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control (alkaline comet assay). Ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L). Results are expressed as mean, median and range. Positive control – H2O2 treated cells (100 µmol/2L)2. *Statistically significant differences (P<0.05, ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey HSD test) vs control
Figure 3
Changes in malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug- abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as means ± SD and medians
Figure 4
Changes in ROS levels in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as mean ± SD and medians. ROS – reactive oxygen species determined using a fluorescent dye 2’,7’-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA)
Figure 5
Changes in glutathione (GSH) levels in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma relevant upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as means ± SD and medians
Figure 6
Changes in glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma relevant upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as means ± SD and medians. * P<0.05 vs control (ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey HSD test)
Figure 7
Changes in superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma relevant upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as means ± SD and medians. *P<0.05 vs control (Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis)
Figure 8
Changes in catalase (CAT) levels in HepG2 and SH-SYY cells exposed to ketamine for 24 h relative to control [ketamine concentrations correspond to concentrations found in human plasma relevant upon analgesia (0.39 µmol/L), anaesthesia (6.25 µmol/L), and drug abuse (1.56 µmol/L)]. Results are expressed as means ± SD and medians. *P<0.05 vs control (ANOVA with post-hoc Tukey HSD test)