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Degradation of hydroxychloroquine in aqueous solutions under electron beam treatment

Stephen Kabasa
Stephen Kabasa
, 
Yongxia Sun
Yongxia Sun
, 
Sylwester Bułka
Sylwester Bułka
 e 
Andrzej G. Chmielewski
Andrzej G. Chmielewski
   | 25 giu 2024
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Article Category: Original Paper
Pubblicato online: 25 giu 2024
Pagine: 65 - 74
Ricevuto: 05 ott 2023
Accettato: 16 feb 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/nuka-2024-0009
Parole chiave
© 2024 Stephen Kabasa et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Fig. 1.

Dégradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine under electron beam treatment. (a) UV-VIS absorption spectrum of HCQ solution with an initial concentration of 2.88 × 10—4 M was observed at 343 nm at doses ranging from 0 kGy to 7 kGy. (b) The removal efficiency of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ solution under EB irradiation.
Dégradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine under electron beam treatment. (a) UV-VIS absorption spectrum of HCQ solution with an initial concentration of 2.88 × 10—4 M was observed at 343 nm at doses ranging from 0 kGy to 7 kGy. (b) The removal efficiency of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ solution under EB irradiation.

Fig. 2.

Degradation of different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine solutions under EB irradiation. (a) Variation in the removal efficiency with increasing HCQ concentration. (b) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing concentrations of HCQ. (c) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing doses for different concentrations of HCQ.
Degradation of different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine solutions under EB irradiation. (a) Variation in the removal efficiency with increasing HCQ concentration. (b) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing concentrations of HCQ. (c) Variation of reaction rate k with increasing doses for different concentrations of HCQ.

Fig. 3.

The effect of pH on the removal of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine. (a) Removal efficiency under different initial pH under electron beam treatment. (b) The changes in pH during electron beam irradiation with different initial pH.
The effect of pH on the removal of 2.88 × 10-4 M of hydroxychloroquine. (a) Removal efficiency under different initial pH under electron beam treatment. (b) The changes in pH during electron beam irradiation with different initial pH.

Fig. 4.

Changes in pH concentration during electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ. The pH varied from slightly acidic before irradiation to acidic at the end of irradiation.
Changes in pH concentration during electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ. The pH varied from slightly acidic before irradiation to acidic at the end of irradiation.

Fig. 5.

Release of the Cl- ion during the degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M solution of HCQ under electron beam treatment.
Release of the Cl- ion during the degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M solution of HCQ under electron beam treatment.

Fig. 6.

(a) Nitrification of organic bound nitrogen (HCQ[N]) with subsequent formation of NO3− during the electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M of HCQ. (b) Formation of NH4+ ion. HCQ, hydroxychloroquine; TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen; TN, total nitrogen.
(a) Nitrification of organic bound nitrogen (HCQ[N]) with subsequent formation of NO3− during the electron beam treatment of 2.88 × 10-4 M of HCQ. (b) Formation of NH4+ ion. HCQ, hydroxychloroquine; TKN, total Kjeldahl nitrogen; TN, total nitrogen.

Fig. 7.

Changes in the dissolved oxygen concentration during electron beam irradiation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ.
Changes in the dissolved oxygen concentration during electron beam irradiation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ.

Fig. 8.

Variation in COD and TOC during electron beam degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ aqueous solutions.
Variation in COD and TOC during electron beam degradation of 2.88 × 10-4 M HCQ aqueous solutions.

Methods for the removal of hydroxyquinine from aqueous solutions

Method Conditions Efficiency Ref.
Photochemical decomposition pH 3–10 Half-lives of 5.5 min (pH3) to 23.1 h (pH4) Hydrolytic degradation <5% [7, 8]
Adsorbents
Living microalgae HCQ 20 mg·L-1, pH 9.9, 45 min, 300 rpm stirring speed microalgae loading of 100 mg·L-1 92.10 ± 1.25% maximum biosorption capacity is 339.02 mg·g-1 [18]
H3PO4-activated Cystoseira barbata (Stackhouse) C. Agardh biochar Adsorbent dose (0.025–1 g·L-1), pH (4–11) contact time (0–240 min) HCQ (10–50 mg·L-1) 98.9% (qmax = 353.58 mg·g-1) surface area (1088.806 m2·g-1) [19]
Natural zeolite CP pH 2–7.5 298 K, 303 K, and 308 K 7 mg·g-1 7 cycles reuse [20]
Algerian kaolin 0.05–0.15 g·L-1 sorbent, and pH of 3–7 5–50 mg·L-1 HCQ Capacity of 51 mg·g-1 0.15 g·L-1 of kaolin, 5 mg·L-1 as HCQ initial concentration, and pH 7 are optimal [21]
Catalysis
ZnO-CP catalyst 2 g·L-1 15% ZnO-CP pH = 7.5 UV-A radiation, 10 mg·L-1 HCQ, 180 min 96% [17]
Modified titanium oxide using beta-bismuth oxide TiO2/ß-Bi2O3 120 min, pH 3–11 10 mg·L-1 HCQ, 0.1 g·L-1 catalyst, 0.1 mg·L-1 H2O2 91.8% 6 cycles >70% degradation [12]
MoS2/CNTs nanocomposite MoS2/CNTs 10:1 ratio loading of 0.1 g·L-1 pH of 8.7, HCQ-20 mg·L-1 120 min 70% Lower band gap energy (1.2 eV), higher specific surface area (30.6 m2·g-1) [13]
Ti3GeC2 with peroxydisulfate 20 mg·L-1 HCQ 0.2 g·L-1 Ti3GeC2, 0.15 mmol·L-1 PDS, ultrasound irradiation 80 min 60.42% Dependent on catalyst dosage (0.1–0.2 g·L-1) [16]
Advanced oxidation processess
Electrochemical oxidation BDD anodes, HCQ 36–250 mg·L-1, j = 20 mA·cm-2, pH = 7.1, T = 25°C, 0.05 M Na2SO4 100% [14]
Electrochemical oxidation BDD electrode 15 mA·cm-2, 30 mA·cm-2, and 45 mA·cm-2 100% COD (68%, 71%, and 84%) [15]
Fe(0)/HSO5−/UV system HSO5− dose: 194.31 mg·L-1; Fe(0): 198.83 mg·L-1; pH = 2.02 and HCQ 296.41 mg·L-1 60 min 98.95% [21]
Gamma irradiation 100 ppm HCQ A dose rate of 26.31 Gy·min-1 pH = 6.2 98.5% TOC removal (8 kGy) complete mineralization [22]
Gamma irradiation 20 ppm HCQ, 1 kGy dose 4.2 kGy1 100% [23]

Reaction rates of aminoquinoline derivatives with hydroxyl radical and hydrated electrons

Reactive spp Hydroxychloroquine [30] Chloroquine [31] Amodiaquine [32]
•OH 9.5 × 109 M-1·s-1 7.3 × 109 M-1·s-1 9.0 × 109 M-1·s-1
eaq− 2.0 × 109 M-1·s-1 4.8 × 1010 M-1·s-1 1.6 × 1010 M-1·s-1

Rate constant k for different concentrations of hydroxychloroquine and corresponding R2 values

Concentation (mg·L-1) k (kGy-1) R2
 75 1.1287 0.9974
100 1.0706 0.9887
125 0.8980 0.9443
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