From Traditional Industry to Smart Regional Specialisation: Textile Industry Transformation in the Łódź Region

A triangulation of research methods was used in the search for answers to the questions posed. The research methods used were as follows: 1) analysis of existing sources, including a critical analysis of the subject-matter literature and strategic documents, reports and expert reports made for the textile industry; 2) statistical methods - indicators of structure and intensity showing the dynamics of transformations taking place in the textile industry; 3) LQ location quotients calculated on the basis of the number of enterprises and employment, enabling identification of the concentration of economic potential in a given industry. The indicators of regional specialisation in the textile industry (simple location quotient - SLQ) were determined on the basis of a comparison of the share of a given branch in the region’s economy with a similar share determined at the national level (activities classified according to sections and divisions of the Polish Classification of Activities).SLQgR=xgR/xRxgN/xN$$SLQ_g^R = {{x_g^R/{x^R}} \over {x_g^N/{x^N}}}$$

where: xgR$$x_g^R$$ - people employed in industry g in the Łódź region; xgN$$x_g^N$$ - people employed in industry g in the national economy; x^R - total working population in the Łódź region; x^N - total working population in the national economy.

If the value of the location quotient for branch g in a region exceeds 1 (SLQgR>1),$$(SLQ_g^R > 1),$$ the concentration of this branch in the region is higher than the average for the country. High spatial concentration is most often understood when the location quotient exceeds a value of 1.25 [16]. By analogy, the LQ index was calculated based on the number of entities.

Molecular parameters: molar mass, polydispersity index and molar mass distribution were determined by GPC/ SEC (Gel Permeation Chromatography/ Size Exclusion Chromatography). The study was performed using the Agilent 1260 gel chromatography system (Agilent Technologies, USA) equipped with an Optilab T-reX refractometer detector (Wyatt Technology, USA). Chloroform HPLC was used as the eluent for analysis. Studies were performed using a PLgel Mixed-C 300mm chromatography column (Agilent Technologies, USA) at a flow rate of 0.7 ml/min. A universal calibration technique was applied using the literature’s Mark-Houwink-Sakurada.

The samples obtained were examined under a scanning electron microscope (SEM) Quanta 200 (W) from FEI (USA). The samples were sputtered with a 20 nm gold layer in a Q 150R S vacuum sputtering machine. The studies were carried out in the HiVac (high vacuum) mode at an electron beam accelerating voltage in the range of 5-20 kV. An ETD detector was used.

Advanced materials are in high demand, especially in the medical industry. Surgical implants, extracorporeal devices, tissue engineering, antimicrobial barrier fabrics, cardiovascular devices, and endovascular treatments are important innovations for an aging society. The results indicate that advanced materials is the term most associated with textile sector company websites, followed by nanotechnology and 3D design/printing (Fig. 3) [20]. New ideas and technological innovations in textiles are very diverse, examples of which are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 3.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, one of the important innovations in advanced materials was a modification intended to generate antipathogenic activity through textiles. The aim was to reduce the transmission of infections and protect people (Fig. 4). Various elements and compounds, such as silver, zinc oxide, copper or natural polysaccharide compounds, such as chitosan, were used for modification (Fig. 5) [21–24]. Other solutions involved the development of filtering materials that can act as barriers to pollutants, bacteria or viruses. Manufactured using, e.g., melt-blown nonwovens with an elementary fibre diameter of approximately 3um, allowed the development of medical devices, such as medical masks or FFP filters (Fig. 6).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

In recent years, the textile industry has undergone a profound transformation in response to growing environmental concerns and sustainability imperatives. The quest for eco-friendly solutions has become central to the industry’s ethos, prompting manufacturers, researchers, and consumers alike to seek innovative and sustainable alternatives to traditional textile products. This transformation has led to a surge in the exploration of biodegradable materials and processes as a key component of sustainable textile practices.

The impetus for this shift towards eco-friendly solutions is multifaceted. Environmental consciousness has reached new heights, driven by increasing awareness of the detrimental impact of conventional textile production and waste. The textile industry, known for its resource-intensive processes and substantial contributions to pollution, has come under scrutiny [25,26]. Consequently, stakeholders are actively seeking ways to mitigate the industry’s environmental footprint and reduce its contribution to landfills and pollution.

One prominent avenue of exploration is the integration of biodegradability into textile materials and products.

Biodegradation offers the potential to address multiple sustainability challenges simultaneously. It allows textile products to naturally break down at the end of their life cycle, reducing the burden on landfills and minimizing the persistence of non-degradable textile waste in the environment. Additionally, the incorporation of biodegradable materials aligns with the broader goal of conserving natural resources and reducing the reliance on petrochemical-derived raw materials [27–29].

The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines biodegradability as a process of decomposition of organic substances by microorganisms into simpler substances such as carbon dioxide, water and ammonia [30,31]. Energy and oxygen, carbon, phosphorous, sulphur, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and other elements are required for microorganisms to grow and reproduce. This process leads to the complete mineralization of organic substances into carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and biomass, leaving no harmful residues or persistent waste. The energy obtained can be used by the microorganisms or lost as heat. Biodegradation can be conducted under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions [32].

Biodegradability of textile materials is important for several key reasons, such as [33–35]: –

environmental pollution reduction: traditional textile materials, such as polyester and nylon, are composed of synthetic polymers that are highly durable and resistant to natural degradation. When these materials end up in landfills or are littered in the environment, they can persist for decades or even centuries, contributing to environmental pollution;

The latest scientific articles underscore the urgency of addressing textile waste and pollution through the adoption of biodegradable materials. Researchers have made significant strides in developing innovative biodegradable textiles and exploring their potential applications across various sectors. These advancements align with global efforts to reduce the environmental footprint of textile production and consumption [36].

Biodegradability depends on the structure and composition of the material. The relationship between the chemical composition and biodegradability is difficult to predict. Nevertheless, some general relations were described, like the influence of the physical state and surface conditions, which have an effect on the accessibility of extracellular enzymes. The process can be effected by the glass transition temperature, melting temperature, modulus of elasticity and crystallinity. The higher the melting temperature, the lower the rate of biodegradation. Enzymes degrade first the amorphous areas of the material. Thus, the higher the crystallinity, the lower the biodegradation rate. Other important factors that may affect biodegradation are environmental conditions, such as water and oxygen availability, temperature and microbial activity. The process can be carried out in sewage, soil, compost and marine environments. The choice of test conditions should result from the way of utilization [37]. An example of the biodegradation process of bio-textiles is shown in Table 2. SEM images and results from the analysis of sample weight loss during the process are presented, as well as the weight-average molar mass values of the biopolymers. In the SEM images, damage to the structure was already observed after 1 week, and after 16 weeks there is no fibrous structure. The weight-average molar mass (M_w) value after the 4^th week of biodegradation was only 4,800g/mol. Relative to the M_w value of the starting sample, the change was 92%.

Several international organizations and standardisation bodies have produced guidelines and criteria for evaluating and quantifying biodegradability. These standards help ensure consistency and accuracy in assessing the environmental impact of products and materials. Due to the fact that nonwovens and textiles are used in many industries (fashion, agriculture, packaging, etc.), many standards can be used to assess their degradation. Table 3 shows selected methods which are the most commonly used in these tests.

The current state of textile recycling worldwide is marked by both progress and challenges. Textile recycling has gained increased attention in recent years due to growing environmental concerns and sustainability efforts. Globally, approximately 75% of textile waste is disposed of in landfills, 25% is reused or recycled, and less than 1% of all textiles is recycled back into clothing [52].

Increased interest in textile recycling comes from a growing awareness of the environmental impact of the fashion industry and the need for sustainable practices. Simultaneously, the global trend for fast fashion can be observed and contributes to the problem by producing low-quality, disposable clothing, which creates a substantial waste stream. Addressing this issue is a major challenge. Additionally, the global nature of the textile industry complicates recycling efforts due to supply chain complexities and logistics challenges. Nowadays, a shift towards a circular economy model, where textiles are reused, remanufactured, or recycled, is gaining momentum. This promotes sustainability and reduces the reliance on virgin materials. Innovations in textile recycling technologies, such as chemical recycling and mechanical recycling, are on the rise, making it easier to reprocess textiles into new products. Encouraging consumers to buy sustainable, long-lasting clothing and to recycle their old garments remains a significant challenge [53,54].

Textile recycling is typically classified as mechanical or chemical recycling. The first one leads to the transformation of waste into products that can be used as decorations or materials to be used in construction, agriculture, and gardening. Chemical recycling is a process in which polymers are depolymerized or dissolved. In the process fibres of equal quality compared to virgin materials can be obtained [55].

The state of textile recycling is globally evolving with growing awareness and technological advancements. While challenges persist, there is a concerted effort to make the fashion industry more sustainable. Poland, like other European countries, is working on improving its textile recycling infrastructure, but progress is influenced by factors such as consumer behaviour, infrastructure, and technology adoption.

Poland is one of the leaders in textile production in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Following a period of deep transformation, the last decade has witnessed economic stabilisation and technological progress in the industry. Automation, computerisation and modern production technologies have significantly contributed to the development of the industry in Poland. According to Statistics Poland, enterprises that introduced product innovations or innovative business processes in the textile industry between 2019 and 2021 accounted for 19.7%. The positive transformations taking place in this industry are also confirmed by the growing number of people employed in R&D-related jobs, from 171 in 2020 to 226 in 2021. Also, the increase in exports of the textile industry and labour productivity in the industry, measured by the gross value added, indicate an improvement in the economic standing and competitive position (Table 4).

Located in the centre of Poland, the Łódź region, whose economy was dominated by textiles for almost two centuries, is the leader in textile manufacturing in Poland. The region’s capital, Łódź, is seen as Poland’s most representative industrial city from the 19th century. The long-lasting economic monoculture in the city collapsed with the launch of the systemic transformation and the shift to a free market economy in the early 1990s [56]. There was a spontaneous and deep decline of the textile industry, which led to the degradation of the entire city and region and the impoverishment of its residents. Large state-owned industrial plants failed to successfully face the conditions of the market economy and cope with the strong competition of, on the one hand, high-quality products coming from Western European countries, and, on the other hand, low-quality products originating from Asia [57]. For example, in the early 1990s, the unemployment rate in Łódź exceeded 25% and the volume of textile production in the Łódź region fell by as much as 40% in only three years (between 1988 and 1991 [58].

Despite the decline and deep economic transformation of Łódź and the region, the textile heritage is still visible in the economy of the city and the region. However, its structure and character have changed. Large economic entities - really colossal, employing several thousand people at the peak of their development - were transformed into small and medium-sized (often family-owned) companies utilising the potential of knowledge, experience and skills accumulated in previous decades. Employees of state-owned factories started a bottom-up and spontaneous process of creating their own micro-enterprises, thus making use of available and qualified human resources, as well as production machinery and equipment sold off from bankrupt industrial plants [59]. The 1990s saw an explosion of entrepreneurship and an emergence of small and medium-sized enterprises in the textile industry [60].

The structure of the textile sector in Łódź and the region is still strongly dominated by micro enterprises, subject to strong fluctuation and market correction. After two decades of shrinkage in the number of entities and employment, the last decade has seen a consolidation of the economic structure (Fig.7). Since 2010, the industry structure has remained relatively stable, indicating the end of a deep transformation process and the entry into the phase of stabilisation. In 2022, there were more than 1,700 enterprises in the Łódź region, 91% of which were micro and small enterprises [61]. At that time, the textile industry in the Łódź region was characterised by the highest sales growth among other industries (compared to 2021) [62].

Fig. 7.

The textile sector accounts for about ¼ of all jobs in manufacturing in Łódź alone and about 16% of jobs in the Łódź region [63]. At present, in the textile industry the demand for labour exceeds supply, which is why salaries are growing (Fig. 8), suggesting a boom in this sector. Developments in the labour market result from two phenomena: firstly, the economic recovery in the textile industry, and secondly the loss of old staff and the lack of generational replacement. The unfavourable image of the textile industry in Łódź, associated with an outdated and decapitalised economic sector, results in a decline in interest among young people in getting vocational, technical secondary, and higher education that would cater for the needs of this industry. This is one of the key barriers to the development of the sector in the region.

Fig. 8.

The economy of Łódź and the Łódź region continues to be marked by a strong concentration of textile industry. This is confirmed by the LQ specialisation indices for the Łódź region (Fig. 9). The index, calculated on the basis of employment in recent years, oscillates around 3.6, while that calculated on the basis of the number of businesses is 3.2. Assuming that a value higher than 1.5 suggests a high concentration of economic entities and strong specialisation, in the Łódź region we are still presented with an exceptionally strong and rare concentration of this industry in the region’s economy. Despite the fact that in Poland LQ indices are slightly increasing, while in the Łódzkie Voivodship they are slightly decreasing [63], Łódź and the Łódź region undoubtedly still have a textile image. What is more, the employment rate at a stable level, with a decreasing concentration of economic entities, testifies to the development of enterprises in this sector.

Fig. 9.

The textile industry in the region is based on direct contacts and spatial proximity, creating dense and sustainable cooperation networks. This results in the emergence of numerous formal and informal clusters and other forms of coopetition in Łódź that foster the creation of improved and new products. Among others, the Textile Innovation Cluster and the Cluster of Advanced Technologies for the Textile and Clothing Industry operate here.

The textile industry is a component of territorial capital firmly rooted in the Łódź region. Its transformation was based on endogenous mechanisms, mobilisation and entrepreneurship of the local community. The industry did not receive any external support and its transformation demonstrates the strength of the local, textile economy. The region’s industrial heritage and traditions still create favourable conditions for the development of this economic activity. The economic environment is also conducive to this - concentration of research and development activity, academic facilities and the development of related industries (e.g., the clothing industry, fashion industry, medical industry).

The fundamental importance of the textile industry for the development of the Łódź region is demonstrated by the voivodeship’s development plans - Strategy for the Development of the Łódź Voivodeship, Development Strategy for the Łódź Metropolitan Area 2020+ and Regional Innovation Strategy for the Łódź Voivodeship. The textile industry, which is linked to the clothing and fashion industry, is seen these as one of the strategic industries with a high innovative potential.

Over the last decade, the textile industry has been the area of growing technological and innovation potential in the economic structure of the region. This is well illustrated by the dynamics of innovation outlays reported by enterprises from the Łódź Voivodeship. Between 2009 and 2015 only these outlays increased by a factor of six. One in four businesses in the textile industry declares that they are undertaking innovative activities [63]. Textile exports are also recovering, which confirms the growing competitiveness of Łódź textile products [64]. The internationalisation of Łódź enterprises in the field of production (outsourcing, sales or purchase of modern machinery and equipment) is progressing successively. It is increasingly ceasing to be simple cost competition based on low wages, and is becoming competition based on high quality production resulting from the use of modern technologies. This production is strengthened by the favourable location of the region and the many years of experience of Łódź entrepreneurs and employees in the industry. This is confirmed by the receipt of a number of certificates and recognition in the textile community. One example is the international OEKO-TEX® certificate. This is the world’s leading safety mark for textile products. Products awarded with this mark are free of harmful substances in concentrations that affect human health.

Current trends in the development of the textile sector in the Łódź region are the result of growing economic links with high-tech players. Particularly high potential exists in the areas of: biotechnology, nanotechnology, functional materials, communication and information technologies and mechatronics. The transformation of the textile industry primarily involves innovative solutions in:

Providing natural and synthetic materials for the textile industry through: ✓

the production of biodegradable environmentally-friendly fibres/ textiles [21],

The power of the Łódź textile industry lies not only in the tradition and its being deeply rooted in the region but also in the economic potential surrounding this sector, which helps in building innovation capacity. In Łódź there are many R&D centres carrying out intensive innovation activities at the border of the textile industry and other sectors and technologies. These are: −

Lukasiewicz Research Network-Lodz Institute of Technology,

The growing development potential of the textile sector in the Łódzkie Voivodeship is also the effect of cooperation capabilities present within the industry and the business and science cooperation at the local level (64). The existing cooperation networks focus their attention on developing technologically advanced products. The leading role is played by medium-sized enterprises, such as Ariadna S.A., Fabryka Nici BORUTA SOFT Sp. z o.o., Tricomed S.A., Szarpol, PTAK S.A., Yaro Tex Optex S.A., Telimena Sp. z o.o., Syntex Sp. z o.o, Textil, Fibeco Sp. Z o.o., Szarpol Production and Trade Centre, YAVO Sp. z o.o., FERAX GROUP: Gatta, Zenit, Wola, CORIN, ZWOLTEX SPÓŁKA Z O.O., WELTOM, or Arlen Group), which offer high quality textile products and are internationally renowned.

An important backup for the development of the textile industry in Łódź comes from higher education. The strong concentration of qualified personnel, unique technical knowledge and skills, and specialised competences passed on inter-generationally is reinforced by the extensive educational expertise at the tertiary level. There are a number of higher education faculties oriented towards the demands of the textile industry, including industrial design, design, materials engineering, and textile science.

In popular opinion, the textile industry is perceived in the Łódź region as a traditional industry and an unwanted economic legacy, with little chance of development in the era of a global and highly competitive economy. Meanwhile, the transformations taking place in the last decade show that the region’s territorial and technological advantages are triggering mechanisms for creating an innovative economy. A prerequisite for the development of this industry is a well-programmed, place-based regional policy that takes into account the specificity of Łódź resources and development mechanisms.