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Fig. 1
Different actions of NPs in bacterial cells [1, 2, 3, 4]
With different size, shape, stiffness and surface charge NPs cross the bacterial membrane and disrupt cell membrane and wall, influencing several pathways. NPs trigger a generation of oxidative stress (ROS) that damage cellular proteins and cell’s basic components (DNA, ribosomes, enzymes), leading to changes in cell membrane permeability, metabolism pathways and biofilm disruption.