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Gender Imbalances and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from Large-Scale Mexican Migration

Emily Conover
Emily Conover
, 
Melanie Khamis
Melanie Khamis
 et 
Sarah Pearlman
Sarah Pearlman
   | 29 janv. 2021
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Publié en ligne: 29 janv. 2021
Pages: -
Accepté: 23 sept. 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0002
Mots clés
© 2021 Emily Conover et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

Sex ratios. Panel A: By census year and age group, Mexico. Panel B: Comparison of Mexico, United States, and Brazil.Source: Brazil, Mexican, U.S. Census and ACS, accessed through IPUMS.
Sex ratios. Panel A: By census year and age group, Mexico. Panel B: Comparison of Mexico, United States, and Brazil.Source: Brazil, Mexican, U.S. Census and ACS, accessed through IPUMS.

Sex Ratios and International Migration

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Age Groups 18–25 26–33 34–41 42–49 50–57
International migration
Panel A: 2000
% HH with international −0.013*** (0.002) −0.014*** (0.002) −0.011*** (0.002) −0.005* (0.003) −0.006* (0.003)
R2 0.53 0.67 0.58 0.10 0.11
Observations 32 32 32 32 32
Panel B: 2010
% HH with international −0.029*** (0.005) −0.032*** (0.006) −0.019*** (0.005) −0.016*** (0.005) −0.021*** (0.007)
R2 0.56 0.49 0.34 0.26 0.25
Observations 32 32 32 32 32
Homicides
Panel C: 2010
Homicides per 10,000,000 0.043 (0.032) 0.053 (0.039) −0.001 (0.029) 0.008 (0.028) −0.003 (0.037)
R2 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00
Observations 32 32 32 32 32
Panel D: 2007–2010
Homicides per 10,000,000 0.012 (0.012) 0.017 (0.015) −0.005 (0.011) 0.002 (0.011) −0.004 (0.014)
R2 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00
Observations 32 32 32 32 32

Second stage results: robustness checks using EMIF weights

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Female Labor Force Participation % Women in White Collar Jobs % Women in “Brain” Jobs % Women in Male-Dominated Professions Log Monthly Earned Income by Women % Women in Top 25% Income Weekly Hours Worked by Women
Panel A: Historic weights
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.128 (0.402) −1.086 (0.667) −1.111* (0.633) −0.199 (0.166) −6.912** (3.343) −3.033** (1.491) 3.215 (10.081)
A-P F statistic 6.47 6.47 6.47 6.47 6.47 6.47 7.05
Panel B: Movers included
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.821*** (0.148) −0.745*** (0.154) −1.122*** (0.142) −0.028 (0.035) −0.589** (0.294) −0.167* (0.087) 9.058* (4.828)
A-P F statistic 64.23 64.23 64.23 64.23 64.23 64.23 33.69
Panel C: State-specific time trend
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.714*** (0.125) −0.669*** (0.097) −1.070*** (0.098) −0.019 (0.028) −0.680*** (0.208) −0.068 (0.067) 7.997** (3.943)
A-P F statistic 58.37 58.37 58.37 58.37 58.37 58.37 41.02
Panel D: Age group and state time trends
Sex ratio (men/women) 1.873*** (0.687) −0.762** (0.321) −0.504* (0.287) −0.062 (0.087) −0.495 (0.740) 0.123 (0.286) 27.850** (12.612)
A-P F statistic 6.76 6.76 6.76 6.76 6.76 6.76 7.22
Panel E: Additional state–year controls (FDI, Public Expenditure)
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.756*** (0.123) −0.671*** (0.097) −1.069*** (0.098) −0.033 (0.026) −0.709*** (0.206) −0.087 (0.065) 6.996* (3.940)
A-P F statistic 62.77 62.77 62.77 62.77 62.77 62.77 43.21

Other outcomes, second stage, IV results

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
% Female in blue collar jobs % Female in “Brawn” jobs Years of schooling for women % Women with lower secondary education (9) % Women with upper secondary education (12) % Women with college education (16+) % Women who never married
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women) 0.232*** (0.053) 0.460*** (0.046) −6.669*** (0.736) −0.371*** (0.062) 0.067** (0.028) −0.136*** (0.028) 0.033 (0.032)
R2 0.90 0.85 0.96 0.82 0.92 0.90 0.99
Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women) 0.676*** (0.152) 1.077*** (0.141) −12.733*** (1.614) −0.708*** (0.140) 0.381*** (0.070) −0.034 (0.067) −0.023 (0.065)
R2 0.88 0.81 0.95 0.80 0.89 0.89 0.99
Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women) 0.815*** (0.192) 1.168*** (0.176) −17.306*** (2.528) −1.108*** (0.193) 0.281*** (0.074) −0.109 (0.077) 0.063 (0.085)
R2 0.87 0.79 0.93 0.73 0.90 0.90 0.99
Panel D: Weighting source MC
Sex ratio (men/women) 0.763*** (0.173) 1.207*** (0.173) −16.072*** (1.965) −0.875*** (0.145) 0.303*** (0.068) −0.172*** (0.065) 0.006 (0.073)
R2 0.88 0.79 0.94 0.78 0.90 0.90 0.99
Observations 640 640 640 640 640 640 640

First stage results

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Actual Random Excluding Excluding Excluding Excluding Alternative
Weights Weights Strong Strong Largest Largest Demand
Connections Connections2 Receiving Sending CPS change
Predicted migration, EMIF −0.228*** (0.028) −0.034*** (0.011) −0.295*** (0.030) −0.228*** (0.028) −0.460*** (0.063) −0.301*** (0.037) −0.211*** (0.038)
R2 0.61 0.57 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.61 0.55
Predicted migration, ENE −0.155*** (0.022) −0.033*** (0.011) −0.175*** (0.028) −0.154*** (0.022) −0.356*** (0.051) −0.194*** (0.033) −0.162*** (0.030)
R2 0.59 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.55
Predicted migration, MC −0.206*** (0.025) −0.033*** (0.011) −0.225*** (0.029) −0.206*** (0.025) −0.360*** (0.063) −0.244*** (0.034) −0.251*** (0.035)
R2 0.60 0.57 0.60 0.60 0.58 0.59 0.56
Observations 640 640 640 640 640 600 640

Second stage IV results

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Female labor force participation % Women in white collar jobs % Women in “Brain” jobs % Women in male-dominated professions Log monthly earned income by women % Women in top 25% income Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: OLS
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.419*** (0.064) −0.232*** (0.053) −0.457*** (0.046) −0.042** (0.018) −0.355*** (0.129) −0.063 (0.040) −1.241 (1.871)
R2 0.89 0.90 0.85 0.81 0.84 0.88 0.61
Panel B: Weighting source EMIF
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.693*** (0.145) −0.676*** (0.152) −1.065*** (0.141) −0.020 (0.035) −0.645** (0.292) −0.125 (0.085) 8.865* (5.039)
R2 0.89 0.88 0.81 0.81 0.84 0.88 0.58
A-P F statistic 66.12 66.12 66.12 66.12 66.12 66.12 41.60
K-P chi squared 52.40 52.40 52.40 52.40 52.40 52.40 41.47
Panel C: Weighting source ENE
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.666*** (0.167) −0.815*** (0.192) −1.167*** (0.176) −0.048 (0.042) −1.092** (0.465) −0.396*** (0.152) 11.499* (6.706)
R2 0.89 0.87 0.79 0.81 0.83 0.86 0.56
A-P F statistic 49.09 49.09 49.09 49.09 49.09 49.09 23.15
K-P chi squared 35.33 35.33 35.33 35.33 35.33 35.33 20.89
Panel D: Weighting Source MC
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.822*** (0.155) −0.764*** (0.173) −1.197*** (0.172) −0.047 (0.039) −0.871** (0.358) −0.244** (0.103) 13.474* (7.201)
R2 0.88 0.88 0.79 0.81 0.84 0.87 0.54
A-P F statistic 65.68 65.68 65.68 65.68 65.68 65.68 32.31
K-P chi squared 44.19 44.19 44.19 44.19 44.19 44.19 28.70
Observations 640 640 640 640 640 640 480

Predicted Male Migration to the United States, year 2000

Weighting Source EMIF ENE MC
(1) (2) (3)
18–25 age group Mean 0.195 0.213 0.195
Standard deviation 0.136 0.177 0.137
26–33 age group Mean 0.292 0.315 0.291
Standard deviation 0.215 0.269 0.214
34–41 age group Mean 0.280 0.306 0.282
Standard deviation 0.200 0.259 0.198
42–49 age group Mean 0.245 0.256 0.237
Standard deviation 0.160 0.210 0.157
50–57 age group Mean 0.174 0.195 0.179
Standard deviation 0.113 0.163 0.113
Total Mean 0.235 0.257 0.237
Standard deviation 0.173 0.222 0.172

Second stage results: by education level

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Female labor force participation % Women in white collar jobs % Women in “Brain” jobs % Women in male-dominated professions Log monthly earned income by women % Women in top 25% income Weekly hours worked by women
Panel A: More than upper secondary (>12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women) −1.857* (0.994) −1.668 (1.113) −2.039 (1.304) −0.447 (0.333) −2.373 (1.551) −1.052 (0.694) 32.611 (49.891)
R2 −4.47 −9.08 −15.96 −1.51 −0.77 −0.87 −11.02
A-P F statistic 3.29 2.89 2.89 2.89 2.89 2.89 0.43
Panel B: Upper secondary (10–12 years)
Sex ratio (men/women) 0.006 (0.033) 0.071* (0.042) −0.059 (0.044) 0.114*** (0.030) 0.029 (0.094) 0.077 (0.053) −4.924*** (1.843)
R2 0.66 0.68 0.85 0.32 0.79 0.76 0.28
A-P F statistic 22.04 22.95 22.95 22.95 22.95 22.95 17.81
Panel C: Lower secondary or less (9 or less)
Sex ratio (men/women) −0.297*** (0.065) −0.235*** (0.081) −0.325*** (0.060) 0.046*** (0.011) 0.650*** (0.186) 0.182*** (0.039) 5.324* (2.912)
R2 0.86 0.84 0.89 0.76 0.86 0.82 0.69
A-P F statistic 56.16 56.16 56.16 56.16 56.16 56.16 29.44

Average Schooling by Job Type

Year 1990 2000 2010 2015
Panel A: Years of education, mean
White collar 15.8 13.3 12.5 12.8
Blue collar 6.4 7.1 8.1 6.7
Panel B: % with lower secondary education (9 years)
White collar 27.5 11.3 16.3 15.7
Blue collar 16.1 20.1 25.9 18.0
Panel C: % with upper secondary education (12 years)
White collar 11.1 21.4 19.6 20.4
Blue collar 4.0 9.7 12.5 8.3
Panel D: % with college education (16 or more years)
White collar 32.9 39.1 33.6 38.1
Blue collar 3.0 3.6 4.8 3.6

Summary statistics

N Mean Standard deviation Minimum Maximum
Panel A: Explanatory variables of interest
Sex ratio (men/women) 640 0.93 0.05 0.81 1.13
Predicted migration, EMIF 640 0.21 0.17 0.01 0.95
Predicted migration, ENE 640 0.23 0.21 0.01 1.14
Predicted migration, MC 640 0.21 0.17 0.01 0.84
Predicted migration, historical 640 0.17 0.26 0.00 2.08
Panel B: Labor market outcomes
Women's labor force participation (%) 640 0.35 0.12 0.05 0.62
Women in white collar jobs (%) 640 0.47 0.14 0.08 0.78
Women in “brain” jobs (%) 640 0.37 0.11 0.08 0.72
Women in male-dominated professions (%) 640 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.19
Log (average earned monthly income), women 640 7.99 0.26 7.27 8.91
Women in top 25 of income (%) 640 0.20 0.09 0.03 0.55
Weekly hours worked, for women 480 40.34 2.10 32.11 56.55
Panel C: Other outcomes
Women in blue collar jobs (%) 640 0.53 0.14 0.22 0.92
Women in “brawn” jobs (%) 640 0.63 0.11 0.28 0.89
Years of schooling, women 640 8.00 2.43 1.57 12.98
Lower secondary educated women (%) 640 0.21 0.09 0.01 0.44
Upper secondary educated women (%) 640 0.11 0.07 0.002 0.29
College-educated women (%) 640 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.34
Never married women (%) 640 0.20 0.17 0.02 0.72
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