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The EU's regional trade agreements: How the EU addresses challenges related to digital transformation

Magdalena Slok-Wodkowska
Magdalena Slok-Wodkowska
 et 
Joanna Mazur
Joanna Mazur
   | 30 mai 2021
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Article Category: Conceptual Paper
Publié en ligne: 30 mai 2021
Pages: 105 - 120
Reçu: 09 nov. 2020
Accepté: 20 mars 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/ijme-2021-0009
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© 2021 Magdalena Slok-Wodkowska et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Digital STRI

Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Country
Australia – negotiating 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
Austria 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.202 0.202 0.202 0.202
Belgium 0.162 0.162 0.162 0.162 0.162 0.162 0.162
Canada – new type of RTA 0.162 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043
Chile – old type of RTA 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263
Colombia – old type of RTA 0.299 0.299 0.299 0.299 0.299 0.299 0.299
The Czech Republic 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141
Denmark 0.144 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104
Estonia 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
Finland 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101
France 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123
Germany 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144
Greece 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144
Hungary 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.166
Iceland 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267
Ireland 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144
Israel – old type of RTA 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Italy 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126
Japan – new type of RTA 0.064 0.064 0.064 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104
Korea – new type of RTA 0.141 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.145 0.145
Latvia 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.223 0.223 0.223 0.223
Lithuania 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104
Luxembourg 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
Mexico – agreement in principle and old type of RTA in force 0.3 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101
The Netherlands 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.104
New Zealand – negotiating 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Norway 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.061 0.061 0.061
Poland 0.184 0.144 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263 0.263
Portugal 0.184 0.145 0.145 0.145 0.145 0.145 0.145
The Slovak Republic 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.101 0.141
Slovenia 0.104 0.104 0.083 0.083 0.242 0.242 0.242
Spain 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123 0.123
Sweden 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144 0.144
Switzerland 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
Turkey – old type of RTA 0.083 0.163 0.202 0.202 0.202 0.264 0.264
The United Kingdom 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
The United States 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083
Non-OECD economies
Argentina – agreement in principle 0.361 0.34 0.281 0.281 0.321 0.321 0.34
Brazil 0.227 0.227 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.267 0.245
China (People's Republic of) 0.488 0.488 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51
Costa Rica – old type of RTA 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.043
India 0.239 0.239 0.304 0.304 0.343 0.343 0.343
Indonesia 0.307 0.307 0.307 0.307 0.307 0.307 0.227
Kazakhstan 0.228 0.228 0.268 0.506 0.567 0.647 0.647
Malaysia 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126 0.126
Peru 0.242 0.242 0.242 0.242 0.242 0.242 0.242
Russia 0.241 0.281 0.281 0.3 0.3 0.319 0.341
Saudi Arabia 0.206 0.206 0.206 0.206 0.386 0.386 0.405
South Africa – old type of RTA 0.342 0.342 0.342 0.342 0.342 0.342 0.342
Thailand 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3

Enterprises engaged in electronic sales

Country Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales in their own country Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales to other EU countries Indicator: Enterprises having done electronic sales to the rest of the world
Austria 23.91 15.14 8.77
Belgium 29.49 16.10 7.15
Bulgaria 10.32 3.29 1.94
Cyprus 12.95 8.83 7.08
The Czech Republic 29.14 16.10 5.48
Germany 18.68 10.29 4.88
Denmark 31.98 11.01 6.87
Estonia 20.19 9.75 5.00
Greece 10.93 4.16 2.90
Spain 20.58 7.70 4.72
Finland 27.58 9.11 5.15
France 18.66 6.72 4.32
Croatia 19.59 10.51 7.51
Hungary 14.45 5.68 2.55
Ireland 38.38 18.36 12.42
Italy 13.71 6.66 4.56
Lithuania 24.13 13.10 7.05
Luxembourg 11.75 8.46 2.89
Latvia 12.85 6.77 4.06
Malta 22.07 13.21 9.67
The Netherlands 26.49 13.44 5.37
Poland 15.41 5.90 3.01
Portugal 16.47 8.32 6.40
Romania 10.39 6.07 1.65
Sweden 31.89 10.78 7.19
Slovenia 21.99 13.05 5.39
Slovakia 14.37 7.28 2.49
The United Kingdom 25.60 8.37 6.20

Comparison of the various categorizations of obstacles to digital trade

Digital STRI OECD – conceptual framework European Commission
Areas of regulation in which the national regulatory measures have an impact on trade in international digital services Categorization of the obstacles for international e-commerce Factors having impact on digital trade between the Member States
Infrastructure and connectivity Blurring boundaries between goods and services Differences in postal regulations and charges
Electronic transactions Changing trends in trade of goods (e.g., direct costumers’ participation in international trade) Regime of seller's liability for defects in goods
Payment systems Regulatory differences in areas such as “consumer protection, contract law, labelling, logistics and distribution systems, taxation and technical specifications such as interoperability of payment systems” Differences in the law of contracts
Intellectual property rights Growing importance of regulatory measures concerning data (e.g., data location requirements, data transfer requirements, online censorship, data protection regulation) Problems in pursuing claims
Other barriers affecting trade in digitally enabled services Economic factors typical for digital dimensions Copyright terms
Integration of digital technologies by SMEs Privacy protection requirementsCreation and operation of service infrastructureDifferences in technical standardsAspect of payment for goods or for service
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