Digital well-being of managers in the hybrid workplace

Well-being, i.e., a state in which a person feels good, is healthy and happy, is associated with acting in all spheres of life, among which professional activity and functioning as a manager play a particularly significant role. From a practical perspective, well-being at work is equated with job satisfaction; however, researchers point to three of its dimensions:

- psychological–subjective mental well-being (among others, job satisfaction, self-esteem, agency, and capabilities);

Workplace well-being can be described as an employee’s condition where they are aware of and comprehend their capabilities, fulfill fundamental needs, manage stress effectively, maintain productivity, contribute to their community, experience a sense of security, and derive satisfaction and purpose from their work (Van De Voorde et al., 2012). Prioritizing the well-being of employees has the potential to enhance resilience, foster higher employee engagement, decrease instances of sickness, absence, and presenteeism, and ultimately elevate overall performance and productivity (Boyd et al., 2015; Buffet et al., 2013; Harter et al., 2002).

With most jobs relying on technology, managers are navigating how to ensure digital well-being, especially among those who spend their workdays on computers. Technology plays an increasingly important role in private and business life. If a manager manages technology, can maintain and use it consciously, his value in the organization increases. In the opposite situation, technology can generate costs, not properly support operations, and even expose the company to measurable losses related to IT systems and their security. It is worth emphasizing here that currently, it would be difficult to achieve well-being at work without a sense of digital well-being.

The term digital well-being is not strictly defined but generally refers to the proper use of information technology to ensure mental, physical, and social well-being (Vanden Abeele & Nguyen, 2022). It is a relatively new term, born from the introduction of digital technologies like laptops, smartphones, wearables, and the Internet, with numerous applications for remote collaboration and communication. A manager’s digital well-being is demonstrated by being able to use digital technologies to work productively, build social relationships, and maintain a healthy and sustainable life without experiencing the negative side effects of digital technologies such as distraction, addiction, and risks related to health, security, or privacy (Bordi et al., 2018; Gui et al., 2017). At the same time, it is not about forcibly limiting screen time or cutting personnel off from technology, but rather about ensuring that online and offline activities complement each other and enable a more balanced approach to new technologies–balancing benefits and harms (Büchi, 2021; Vanden Abeele, 2021). The manager’s digital well-being can therefore be defined as a set of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and actions to optimize individual somatic, mental, and social health through the responsible and sustainable use of ICT with the full awareness that the specifics of the design, particularly of tools for remote collaboration and communication, may encourage their thoughtless misuse.

The starting point for estimating the level of digital well-being may be the manager’s perception of technological variability. How positively does he assess the continuous changes and dynamic development of technology, does he have a sense of “keeping up” with new solutions, and does he see the need to adapt them and use them purposefully in his work?

The next step may be to analyze the processes related to the management of concentration and focus, multitasking, as well as overstimulation and technostress, i.e., the tension that appears when interacting with digital technologies (Hefner & Vorderer 2017; Salanova et al., 2014; Weinstein et al., 2016;). In this case, the stressor is information overload, multitasking, or a sense of lack of time. Recent research does not regard technostress as an isolated phenomenon solely generated by technology. Instead, it is seen as a response that emerges through the interaction between the user and the technology. The onset of technostress is contingent upon individual users’ experiences, abilities, assessments, and the specific type of technology being utilized within a given context (Gimpel & Schmied, 2019). Tension, low motivation, irritability, and disengagement are common symptoms of technostress. Information overload can be defined as the experience of feeling overwhelmed by a large amount of information received at a rate too fast to be processed effectively. This causes cognitive exhaustion due to the constant need to deal with distractions. Managers today are in a constant stream of information disruptions that result in kicking out of work and shallower mental processes (Matthes et al., 2020). Research (Eppler & Mengis, 2004; Misra & Stokols, 2012; Reinke & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2014;, Wajcman and Rose 2011) shows that a serious problem is working amid constant distractions, interrupting tasks with constantly incoming emails, notifications, messages sent through messengers, not parting with your smartphone, constant readiness to reply to emails and text messages, which in turn causes a decrease in efficiency, lowering the quality of mental work and creating a habit of working in the so-called half-focus. It is a state of mind in which the manager does not pay full attention to anything and remains on constant alert, which stimulates the production of adrenaline and cortisol (Bondanini et al., 2020). The manager, who is expected to be constantly ready to receive and execute new orders, loses the vision of completing the task (Duan et al., 2023). Work that never ends, even the most interesting or best paid, becomes task work, meaningless and ultimately burning out the individual (Maslach & Leiter, 2016). After a strenuous cognitive effort, a restorative break is essential to return to online work with greater awareness.

It is also important to allow the manager to turn off and go into the “off state”, so that after the cut-off time he is ready to face the incoming stimuli again. Digital availability (being online) during breaks from work reduces the breaks’ regenerative power. Even when a manager does not use the devices connecting him to work during certain hours, the mere fact of staying online keeps stress hormones at a level that does not allow the activation of the relaxation response necessary for rest (Tarafdar et al., 2019). A threat to the manager’s performance resulting from constant availability is also the temptation appearing in such conditions, turning into a necessity to attempt to perform several tasks at the same time (Taylor & Bazarova, 2020).

The last element of digital well-being may be the ability to recover and cope with a specific type of fatigue or weariness called a “digital hangover” (Stjernfelt & Lauritzen, 2020). Using new technologies anytime anywhere is not a sign of digital well-being. Gaining better control over ICT usage habits can make it easier to find a balance that suits the needs of the manager and serves his/her job performance.

Various factors are closely linked to the digital well-being of managers. Zeike et al. (2019) described the correlation between enhanced digital leadership skills and elevated psychological well-being. In a similar vein, Bordi et al. (2018) pointed to the pivotal role of the quantity, quality, and adaptability of digital communication. Furthermore, Zeike et al. (2019) shed light on the adverse impact of perceived choice overload in ICT tools on well-being. Sun et al.’s (2022) work additionally underscores the mediating role of well-being at work in the intricate relationship between digitization and mental health. These findings highlight the crucial role of digital leadership, effective communication, and adept management of cognitive demands in promoting the digital well-being of managers.

The requirements and resources of an employee are described by the Job Demands-Resources Theory (JD-R) (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), in which the authors group the two indicated factors occurring in the work environment and determine how requirements and resources affect the well-being of the individual and its functioning at work. Job requirements encompass the physical, psychological, social, and/or organizational elements of a job that demands sustained physiological and/or psychological (cognitive and emotional) exertion or expertise, thereby incurring physiological and/or psychological costs. Classic examples of job demands are high work pressure, unpleasant physical working conditions, and lack of job control. Of course, the demands of work are not always negative factors that cause stress, but they become stressors when meeting these demands involves a lot of effort and the resulting costs are not adequately compensated.

Resources, on the other hand, help the employee cope with the intellectual and emotional demands of the job. They refer to the physical, psychological, social and/or organizational aspects of work, which can be a tool in achieving professional goals, reducing the psychophysiological costs associated with the demands of work, and contributing to personal development. The most important work resources include: the ability to control work, participation in decision-making, receiving feedback on the work performed, the variety of tasks performed, the possibility of development, and support from the supervisor and colleagues (Bakker and Leiter, 2010).

In addition, two processes interact at work: energy and motivation. The first one is activated because of excessive demands, which can lead to negative effects on the level of performance and subjective well-being of the employee. In turn, the motivational process is launched thanks to the specific resources of the organization and/or personal resources that encourage employees to be more involved in work, ensure its better quality, and improve professional competences. The direction and development of these two processes (energy and motivation) depend on the mutual relationship between work demands and work resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). When job demands are high, but resources are present in the work environment that the employee can use, the health effects (effect of exposure to stress related to high job demands) may be lower than in a situation where these resources are not available or the employee is unable to use them (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).

In this context, it can be concluded that digital well-being can be a manager’s resource supporting him in activities related to balancing technological requirements (Park et al., 2020) and, as a result, positively affecting his sense of well-being in hybrid work in general. As noted by researchers (Straus et al., 2023), resources are more effective in averting the adverse effects of stressors when stressors, resources, and demands are in harmony. However, there is still insufficient evidence regarding the interplay between emerging job demands resulting from the introduction of new technology and an individual’s resources. This indicates a gap in the organizational literature regarding the impact of personal resources (e.g., digital well-being) on the embrace of new technology tools and, consequently, workplace well-being.

In conclusion, this study aims to explore how managers utilize ICT in hybrid work settings. It investigates whether this constitutes a sustainable use of technology that leads to a sense of well-being at work. The following main research questions were formulated:

How do the respondents deal with technological variability? What new opportunities do they perceive at work resulting from its hybrid nature, and what is the biggest challenge for them at the moment?

The study cohort comprised 20 individuals (N=20) working in managerial roles across diverse sectors in Poland. The majority of participants were female (70%), holding positions in prominent organizations within the education, finance, and information technology sectors. Respondents’ ages ranged from 39 to 55 years (with an average age of 42), and all interview participants were of Polish nationality. The detailed profile of the participants is outlined in Table 1.

Respondents were chosen through a process facilitated by a social networking site to engage individuals working in large organizations with a staff of 250 employees or more. This decision was guided by the assumption that the most significant organizations actively participate in initiatives to promote employee well-being and extensively utilize ICT. Invitations for interview participation were extended to representatives of specific global companies employing white-collar workers. Additionally, the selected respondents were deliberately chosen for their substantial professional experience, with an average tenure of 16 years, and an average team size of 19 subordinates. Another criterion for selection was the requirement for respondents to have worked in a hybrid work arrangement for a minimum of one year.

A semistructured individual in-depth interview (IDI) was used as the research method (Kvale, 2012). The examination of textual data originated from transcriptions of interviews, which were systematically categorized and coded. Through in-depth individual interviews, we gained insight into how managers structure their work in a hybrid environment using ICT and whether they maintain digital well-being. The following topics were focused on: managers’ perception of technological volatility, managing concentration and work organization with the use of technology, techno-stress and coping with it, balancing professional and personal life along with managing activities both online and offline, as well as regeneration and well-being at work. The interviews were carried out in the period from June 2022 to January 2023. As a result of the implementation of the IDI, 280 pages of material were obtained (20 interviews were conducted; the total duration was 934 minutes). The interviews were documented through recording and subsequently transcribed into textual formats. Qualitative data analysis was carried out using the MAXQDA software.

The primary analytical procedure in qualitative research within the social sciences involves coding, which entails classifying and categorizing individual data elements along with implementing a system for data retrieval. The interviews’ content has been organized by topic, adhering to the qualitative data coding principle. Coding and the exploration of connections between concepts played a pivotal role in the research analytical process (Gibbs, 2007). During the analysis, coding was employed to label and categorize phenomena by thoroughly examining the collected data according to a prepared analysis framework and data coding system, derived from the interview structure. Subsequently, a content analysis of the surveyed managers’ statements was conducted. Thematic analysis engaged with the data inductively, with the researcher progressing from isolated instances to broader interpretations. This involved applying codes, establishing categories, and ultimately identifying themes (specific behavior patterns). Data mining encompassed activities related to condensing and transforming data through selection and inclusion in general patterns. The in-depth interviews facilitated participants in providing comprehensive insights into how they organized their work with the use of technology and what its impact was on their digital well-being.

A high level of tension, the need to constantly adapt to changes or a large number of stimuli related to the high pace of work and the use of many different technological solutions are the factors that accompany managers working in the hybrid model in Polish organizations, often exceeding the level of intensity they had known thus far. Some of the managers declare that their condition is weakened and the resources are too small concerning the challenges they face. The biggest challenge for most managers resulting from technological variability is the efficient organization of the work of hybrid teams, establishing communication channels, and introducing new people to professional duties.

In the case of the approach to technological volatility itself, three coexisting patterns of attitudes can be observed. Some managers emphasize being overwhelmed by the intensity and number of changes taking place, which makes it difficult for them to function efficiently. They perceive technology more as a job demand. Others approach this issue quite thoughtlessly, reacting indifferently to the progressing volatility and emphasizing that keeping up with the changes is somehow forced by their function and as managers, in their opinion, they have no choice–they have to find themselves in every situation. The last model is managers who declare a positive attitude to the ongoing technological changes and their intensity, who try to keep up with technological innovations and use them, for example, to organize a common virtual workspace. They perceive technology more as a job resource. Details are presented in Table 2.

Also, the level of technological literacy among managers is crucial. Managers with a solid understanding of emerging technologies may view volatility as an opportunity for growth, while those less familiar might perceive it as another job demand. What’s more, the current state of a company’s technology infrastructure can shape managers’ perceptions. If an organisation has a solid and flexible technology foundation, managers may feel better equipped to navigate technological change, reducing negative perceptions of volatility. This perception of technological variability by managers can also be shaped by their sense of responsibility for achieving organisational goals, the way they manage their time, and the demands placed on them and their co-workers by their own ICT usage practices.

Most of the managers participating in the interviews see both the advantages and disadvantages of working in a hybrid model with the use of information technology. Respondents emphasize that thanks to technology they can keep up to date with all professional activities and keep their finger on the pulse. Some of the respondents also emphasize that thanks to some technological solutions they can work more effectively and organize their activities, and the technologies used provide them with flexibility in their professional activities. Surveyed managers in their hybrid work utilize various ICT tools. Most frequently, aside from email or specific industry systems, indicated tools include video conferencing and online collaboration programs such as MS Teams, Zoom, Messenger, WhatsApp, Jira, and Slack.

The element that bothers the most respondents a bit is that due to the widespread adoption of information and communication technologies, a large part of meetings take place online and as a result managers begin to lack direct contact with their subordinates, which contributes to a decrease in their sense of well-being at work.

When analyzing the patterns of managers regarding the use of modern technologies at work, three characteristics can be noticed. Firstly, the conscious and purposeful use of selected technologies to enable the effective implementation of professional activities and conducive to achieving well-being. Secondly, the lack of control and, as if, succumbing to technologies in the direction of compulsive use of them “anytime and anywhere”, without a sense of digital well-being. Thirdly, the study and testing of technologies to determine the optimal solutions and possibilities of use. Details are presented in Table 3.

ICT can allow flexibility in work schedules, which can prompt managers to stay longer to accommodate their individual needs. Contemporary ICT tools, such as Teams or Zoom, often encourage managers to be constantly online, fostering an “always available” mentality, even outside normal working hours. This software shapes working practices and communication. Push notification features constantly keep managers informed, increasing their alertness. Document sharing and work insights contribute to managers staying closely connected to their responsibilities outside the office, and their micromanagement tendencies may be also exacerbated. It is worth emphasizing at this point that how managers use ICT, along with their managerial practices, goal-setting, and procedures, does not remain without influence on the development of competencies in the realm of digital well-being for both themselves and their teams. At times, top-down organizational procedures may also foster compulsive and unreflective use of ICT by managers.

Managers are aware of the need for concentration at work, but they do not analyze this phenomenon. Rather, they take the approach that goals should be achieved and try to work in such a way as to get everything done on time, without analyzing the cognitive process of performing the task. When analyzing the respondents’ statements, it can be concluded that the model of hybrid work dominates, in which this part of the work performed in the office is more focused on direct contact and exchange of information with co-workers. On the other hand, in this part of work provided from home, tasks that require more focus and conceptual work are performed. Details are presented in Table 4.

Managers need time for in-depth work, but the statements show that it is rather “pulled out” of current tasks than consciously planned and used. Even when managers plan conceptual work during the day, they usually have to interrupt it because of current affairs that dominate. Some managers make deliberate efforts to autonomously limit stimuli in the form of constant notifications from ICT applications, which disrupt their concentration process and hinder the effective execution of cognitively demanding tasks. This often involves periodically disabling push notifications from applications or abstaining from launching specific online communication programs that essentially enable unrestricted contact with employees or clients. Multitasking is the norm. All respondents emphasized that they deal with at least several activities at the same time and some described it as a standard way of doing work. At the same time, in the statements of managers, there is a conviction about ticking off subsequent tasks, a sense of work that never ends, and working hours are extended–especially the parts that are performed remotely. It seems that managers have the challenge of balancing the need for connectivity and communication with the need for focused, concentrated work. Some of them are looking for ways to strike a balance between staying informed and minimizing distractions.

The statements of managers show that they experience a fairly high level of information overload and overstimulation, with simultaneous constant pressure to quickly achieve the assumed results. At the same time, managers show a fairly strong desire to control everything–to be “up to date”, and often their activity is caused by the so-called FOMO (fear of missing out) (Budnick et al., 2020); they are afraid of being out of control so as not to miss anything important. The perceived usefulness of digital tools is therefore sometimes a source of ever-growing anxiety that hinders the experience of well-being at work. The managers noted an excess of technology, which pertains to the need to work faster and longer due to technological demands. They also pointed out a technological invasion, involving constant connectivity, leading to the blurring of boundaries between work and personal life. Additionally, they emphasized technological complexity, signifying an individual’s difficulty in comprehending specific tasks or situations, and technological uncertainty of situations characterized by ambiguous expectations or outcomes. Most managers acknowledge that they experience the cognitive load associated with managing multiple digital tasks simultaneously, and highlight that the complexity of digital interfaces and the need to switch between different applications exacerbates their feelings of overstimulation and information overload.

On the other side, respondents believe that thanks to ICT they have more autonomy at work, especially thanks to those solutions that enable communication over a distance. Few managers participating in the study noted that, compared to employees, they have a higher degree of autonomy in project management and, consequently, bear greater responsibility for the outcomes achieved by their team. Such a role involves decisions regarding processes and schedules, shaping the work culture of subordinate employees, and the increased autonomy and responsibility may, on one hand, enhance or hinder their well-being at work.

At times, managers attempt to shield team members from stress or challenges by taking on the most difficult or additional tasks themselves. Furthermore, they may extend their working hours and encroach upon their boundaries in the process. These can increase the experience of work-related stress, attributing it to self-imposed pressure. This is a delicate issue as employees observe how managers handle their workloads and emulate their choices. Hence, it appears crucial for workplace well-being to avoid overburdening oneself. Managers can achieve this by training others, delegating tasks, empowering team members, and ensuring collaboration and coordination with other groups to prevent an undue burden on themselves. Nevertheless, managers report various types of psychophysical ailments, such as back pain, insomnia, vision problems, nervousness, and intensified tension when being offline, the causes of which they see as excessive use of technology. The detailed respondents’ statements about techno-stress and information overload are presented in Table 5.

At the level of declarations, most respondents emphasize the importance of clearly separating their professional and private lives. However, the implementation of this principle in practice differs. Most managers point out that due to the omnipresence of technology and the constant flow of information, they struggle to maintain a balance in the work-life relationship. Some of the statements indicate that there is no need to maintain a balance and consciously put work before private life as a consequence of the managerial role. Taking into account the statements of the respondents, it can be seen that due to the mobility and constant availability of work tools (most applications or systems are offered as the so-called SaaS - Software as a Service in the cloud), regardless of the location of the managers, they have difficulty maintaining clear boundaries and balance in the work-life relationship.

Working hours, especially those performed remotely, are frequently extended by managers, and they experience difficulty in completing their professional duties. As for nonprofessional areas of life most disrupted by professional work, respondents most commonly pointed to family life and physical activity. Such extensive use of technology blurs the line between work and personal life, creating pressure on managers to be constantly available and engaged. The ability to balance work and personal life becomes crucial; it highlights the need to consciously manage online accessibility to promote managers’ and employees’ digital well-being.

From the managers’ statements, it can be inferred that an intensified sense of responsibility for the team’s results and a tendency to exert control hinder the process of creating of work-life balance. As practical experience indicates, it is not possible to do everything alone. Turning towards collaboration with suitable colleagues, whom the manager can trust to fulfill assigned tasks, can help maintain balance, both for the manager and members of the team. A well-built team that does not require constant monitoring, coupled with task delegation and responsibility sharing allows the manager to avoid the burden of thinking and executing everything alone.

The detailed respondents’ statements about work-life balance are presented in Table 6.

The research conducted indicates the challenges faced by most managers in disconnecting from technology, especially in the context of remote work. The findings reveal that a significant number of managers continue to work during holidays, sick leave, and beyond regular working hours, making it difficult for them to disengage from their digital devices. Several respondents explicitly noted that being continuously online is their choice and a result of their profound sense of responsibility for achieving the goals of the organization they work for. Furthermore, managers clarified that although they prefer to remain in constant work-related connectivity, they do not impose such requirements on their subordinates. Similar to the issue of work-life balance, in the matter of conscious disconnection from technology among managers, the need for control and authority prevails, limiting the manager’s inclination toward deliberate and planned regeneration. This may also be caused by excessive performance pressure imposed on managers by higher-level leadership. While managers recognize the importance of regeneration to enhance their professional performance, the desire to maintain control often prevails, leaving limited room for unplugging from technology.

When managers do allow themselves a break from technology, they report the quickest regeneration when connecting with nature or pursuing their hobbies and sports activities.

Furthermore, some organizations have implemented top-down practices aimed at reducing the scheduling of consecutive online meetings and restricting access to employees’ work emails during extended leave or by introducing so-called “focus days”, during which employees may be absent from online work systems. Additionally, several managers have mentioned that their organizations offer opportunities for participation in yoga or relaxation classes and provide flexible working hours. The detailed respondents’ statements about regeneration are presented in Table 7.

While these studies provide both theoretical and empirical insights into the current body of literature on well-being in the workplace through the use of ICT, it is important to consider certain limitations when interpreting the presented findings. The principal empirical contribution of this article is to highlight elements connected to the utilization patterns of information technologies in the work settings of white-collar workers. These factors have the potential to influence a manager’s dedication to their work, allowing them to actualize their potential and to attain well-being in the workplace, all while also impacting their subordinates.

It is important to highlight that, even though the participants in the detailed interviews were exclusively managers from Poland, the majority of their workplaces are Polish branches affiliated with international corporations. Consequently, it can be inferred that the findings from this research may hold significance in the international conversation on ICT. However, a potential constraint lies in the deliberate selection of the research sample, preventing the generalization of the obtained results.

Certainly, the issue of digital well-being requires further research, also quantitative, which would allow one to determine the importance and impact of digital well-being on well-being at work in a narrower scope. This is important because the automation and digitization of work are progressing, and new ICTs are constantly appearing. This is all the more important when we consider the pace of artificial intelligence development and the application of algorithms in HRM. The continual use of ICT in the workplace necessitates that managers continually acquire new skills and enhance, or possibly entirely transform, those already established. This ongoing adaptation, prompted by the introduction of increasingly advanced technological solutions in the work environment, may lead to heightened negative emotions and stress, particularly for managers less adept at adjusting to the dynamic and demanding professional reality that we are presently confronting. Addressing this matter likely calls for further investigation, which could offer insights into the actions managers can take to alleviate negative sentiments among employees and establish new, efficient, and sustainable models for working with information technology.