Geosites in Orava, Liptov and Spiš (N Slovakia) – Evaluation, Accessibility and Geotouristic Potential

Geotourism is a form of outdoor and sightseeing tourism. The objective of geotourism is to discover and learn about the elements of abiotic nature and the processes that shape them (Hose 1995, 2000, 2008, 2011, Stueve et al. 2002, Słomka, Kicińska-Świderska 2004, Joyce 2006, Newsome, Dowling 2006, 2010, Migoń 2012). The purpose of geotourism trips is to visit and become familiar with objects of abiotic nature that were formed as a result of various geological and geomorphological processes (Słomka, Kicińska-Świderska 2004, Kurek 2008). Currently, geotourism is most developed in mountainous areas, deserts, coastal areas and river valleys, as evidenced by the numerous publications describing such attractions (Borówka, Nowak 2005, Żaba 2005, Dmytrowski, Kicińska-Świderska 2006, Łodziński 2007, Strzeboński, Słomka 2007, Mateos et al. 2011, Hlavňová, Pavolová 2013, Krzeszowska 2013, Farsani et al. 2014, Bąk et al. 2016, Rogowski 2016). In addition to natural areas, geotourism is also promoted in anthropogenic facilities related to the exploitation of natural resources, that is, former mines, historical technological objects or hydrotechnical facilities (Baláž et al. 2008, Kowol, Różycki 2008, Kurek 2008, Rybár, Carvajal 2014). Also interesting is the educational approach to geosites that require special climbing equipment for exploration (Bollati et al. 2018, 2024, Knight, Bollati 2024). Travelling and exploring places of interest from the point of view of abiotic nature may require special qualifications, such as those related to climbing and underground exploration. Geotourism can also take the form of business tourism when it involves professionals (especially natural scientists) attending various types of scientific conferences (Migoń 2012). Currently, the development of geotourism is mainly influenced by scientific centres that promote natural heritage, education in the field of natural sciences and the preparation of popular educational publications and maps. It is mainly promoted by geologists and geographers, as well as lovers of abiotic nature (Kurek 2008).

Objects of abiotic nature that are the subject of geotourism are defined as geosites or geomorphosites. They are places where it is possible to learn about and obtain information on various forms and processes related to abiotic nature (Reynard 2004, Słomka, Kicińska-Świderska 2004, Dmytrowski, Kicińska 2011, Migoń 2012). They fulfil scientific, educational, tourist, and conservation functions (Koźma 2008).

Orava, Liptov, and Spiš are ethnographic regions surrounding the Tatra Mountains (from the west, south and east). These areas have very well-developed tourist facilities and are well-connected. In addition, they are characterised by a rich culture, which is visible in the architecture, regional folk clothes and all sorts of traditions; this undoubtedly confirms this area as one of the most popular tourist areas in Slovakia (Kollár 1999a, b, Lacika 1999a, b).

This article aims to identify the most attractive geosites, inventory them and perform expert evaluation. This is based on several elements, including: (i) the representativeness of observable features, rocks and landforms and the geological, hydrogeological and geomorphological processes that led to their formation, (ii) the degree of uniqueness of the selected sites, presented on a regional and national scale, (iii) the degree of landscape diversity and (iv) the scientific value of geosites demonstrated by domestic and international scientific publications. The assessment of the cognitive and educational value of geosites was complemented by an analysis of selected tourism criteria, that is: (i) the accessibility of the site and the degree of its degradation, (ii) the scenic value, including the viewpoint extent, (iii) the level of promotion of the geosite, (iv) the legal status of the area where the geosite is located and (v) an assessment of its location in relation to accommodation and complementary services, and other tourist attractions.

Among the publications related to geotourism, there are only a few works concerning the region of Orava, Liptov and Spiš. Some authors emphasised the geotouristic values of the Podhale flysch (e.g. Ptaszek 2005, 2007, Krobicki, Golonka 2008b, Chrobak 2015, 2016, 2018, Chrobak, Bąk 2019). Many geotourism publications refer to the Pieniny Mountains and have been indirectly influenced by the idea of creating a cross-border Pieniny Geopark (Birkenmajer 1962, 1979, 2014, Alexandrowicz et al. 1997, Golonka, Krobicki 2007, Krobicki, Golonka 2008a, Golonka et al. 2014a, b, Jacko et al. 2014). Geosites are presented in the Slovak Paradise (Slovenský raj) National Park (Lukáč et al. 2010, Janočková et al. 2012, Janočková, Janočko 2013), the Dobšinská ľadová jaskyňa Cave (Gasinec et al. 2013) and selected areas of the Spiš region (Rybár, Compľová 2013, Štrba et al. 2022, Čech et al. 2025).

A detailed inventory of geological localities in the area of Podhale, Orava, Liptov and Spiš was created as part of the doctoral thesis of the first author of this article and subsequently published in the form of a monograph (Chrobak, Bąk 2019). Objects of outstanding geological value are also described in the central register of geosites administered by the State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr (Liščák et al. 2012).

All methods of geosite assessment described in the scientific literature are based on point valuation. According to this method, different weights are assigned to defined criteria. Among the many assessment methods described so far, relating to different areas of mountain and foothill relief (Alexandrowicz et al. 1992, Serrano, González-Trueba 2005, Panizza, Mennella 2007, Reynard et al. 2007, Zouros 2007, Koźma 2008, Pereira, Pereira 2010, Rodrigues, Fonseca 2010, Rybár 2010, Bruschi et al. 2011, Coratza et al. 2011, Dmytrowski, Kicińska 2011, Fassoulas et al. 2012, Brilha, 2016), in this article, two methods were used: those presented by Pereira and Pereira (2010) and Fassoulas et al. (2012). According to the authors of these papers, these methods comprehensively evaluate geological sites of mountain and foothill relief; the first one was used for the Montesinho Mountain Park in Portugal and the second for the Psiloritis Geopark and the Lasithi Mountains on Crete. The criteria used in these two papers were the basis for the introduction of a modified assessment method of the geosites in the Sub-Tatra region (Chrobak 2018, 2021, Chrobak, Bąk 2019) that also belongs to the group of point valuation methods.

The assessment method used in this paper assumes that geosites are evaluated according to two sets of criteria: cognitive-educational and tourist criteria. The criteria for assessing cognitive and educational value were based on those presented in Pereira and Pereira (2010), while the tourist criteria were based on those presented in Pereira and Pereira (2010) and Fassoulas et al. (2012) (Table 1).

The sums of the values related to each criterion were then divided by the maximum sum that could be obtained for each criterion so that all values were in the range 0–1. On this basis, four groups were distinguished (Table 2). The boundaries between them were adopted on the basis of the proposals presented in Warszyńska (1970).

The final indexation coefficient of a given geosite (W_K), which was calculated according to the following formula (Chrobak, Bąk 2019): WK=0.7WE+0.3WT’{W_K} = 0.7{W_E} + 0.3{W_{{T^'}}} where: –

W_E is the cognitive and educational value,

The weighted average values for calculating the index coefficient of the geosite at the level of 0.7 for W_E and 0.3 for W_T represent the greater importance of cognitive and educational value over tourist value, which, according to the authors, is key in this assessment (Chrobak, Bąk 2019). The elements that make up tourist value can change at any time and very quickly, either positively or negatively. Changing the ratio (e.g., 60% and 40% or 80% and 20%) does not change the values of the resulting ratings, and the distribution of geosites into categories I–III remains essentially the same.

The assessment method presented is subjective and based on the knowledge and experience of the experts who implement the assessment. In order to reduce the subjectivity of the assessment values obtained, the educational and cognitive criteria were assessed independently by three experts, and then an arithmetic average was calculated from their scores in accordance with the basics of the triangulation method (Flick 2011).

The experts who took part in the valuation of geosites are people who are both scientifically and sentimentally connected with the studied area. The first expert is a physical geographer who scientifically deals with the concepts of geodiversity, geoheritage, inventory, and valuation of geosites and their promotion. She was raised in the study area and knows the assessed geosites very well. The second expert is a regional geographer who, like the first expert, comes from the studied area. In his research, he deals with the important problems of transport, tourism, and cross-border development. The third expert is a physical geographer, a geomorphologist who deals with fluvial processes, tectonics, and morphostructures, and part of his research also takes place in the Tatra region.

The region surrounding the Tatra Mountains can be defined on the basis of various criteria. Ethnographically, it represents four historical cultural regions – Orava, Liptov, Spiš and Podhale (Fig. 1). Administratively, it covers the territory of three regions in Slovakia: Žilina (districts of Dolný Kubín – DK, Tvrdošín – TS, Námestovo – NO, Ružomberok – RK and Liptovský Mikuláš – LM), Prešov (districts of Poprad – PP, Kežmarok – KK, Ľubovňa – LE and Stará Ľubovňa – SL), and Košice (district of Spišská Nová Ves – SN). In Poland, it covers the lesser Poland Voivodeship (districts of Tatra – TT and Nowy Targ – NT).

Fig. 1.

Location of Sub-Tatra region (based on the administrative map of Slovakia available online at www.geoportal.sk).

From the physical-geographical point of view (Mazúr, Lukniš 1978, Balon et al. 2015), this region includes the mountain ranges (Tatra Mountains, Kozie chrbty Mountains, Chočské vrchy Mountains) and interior mountain basins (Podtatranská kotlina Basin, Hornádská kotlina Basin) of the Fatra-Tatra Area within the Inner Western Carpathians, as well as the units of the Podhale-Magura Area (Podtatranská brázda Trench, Skorušinské vrchy Mountains (continued within Poland as the Pogórza Przedtatrzańskie Mountains), Oravská kotlina Basin (continued within Poland as the Kotlina Orawsko-Nowotarska Basin), Spišská Magura Mountains (also extend into Poland as the Magura Spiska Mountains)), the Central section of the Western Beskids (Oravská vrchovina Mountains, Oravská Magura Mountains) and the Eastern section of the Western Beskids (Pieniny Mountains) within the Outer Western Carpathians (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

The physical-geographical mesoregions of the study area (based on Urbánek et al. 2009 and Balon et al. 2015).

In the varied geological structure of the territory (e.g. Bezák et al. 2008), several basic units of the Western Carpathians are represented, from the Tatric units (mainly Palaeozoic crystalline core – granites, granodiorites, metamorphites) and the Sub-Tatric Mesozoic nappes (Fatrikum, Hronikum – limestones, dolomites, marls), through the layers of the Inner Carpathian Palaeogene (sandstones, claystones, siltstones), up to the Mesozoic (limestones, marls) units of the Pieniny Klippen Belt and the flysch formations (Palaeogene – sandstones, claystones). The youngest units are the Neogene filling of the Oravská kotlina Basin (clays, dusts, coals, sands, gravels) and Quaternary sediments (fluvial, glacial, glacifluvial). Travertines are a special example of Quaternary rocks that are very numerous. They are formed by chemical precipitation from mineral springs, and their occurrence is mainly linked to the tectonic lines bordering the Podtatranská kotlina Basin and the Hornádská kotlina Basin (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

The geology of the studied area (based on the geological map of lexa et al. 2000).

The nature of the relief in the region under study varies in accordance with the varied geological structure (e.g. Lukniš 1972, Lehotský, Boltižiar 2022). The basic geomorphological units have been individualised as a result of neotectonic movements (e.g. Minár et al. 2011). The highest elevated mountain ranges (Tatra Mountains, Nízke Tatry Mountains) were shaped by mountain glaciers in the Pleistocene, and many fossil forms of glacial relief (glacial valleys, glacial cirques, glacial lakes) can be found there (e.g. Lukniš 1973). Their present-day rocky and mountainous relief is the result of a combination of frost weathering processes and gravitational processes in the periglacial morphoclimatic zone and different geological structures (e.g. Boltižiar 2022). Karst relief on limestones and dolomites (caves, abysses, rock formations) is a special phenomenon. Fluvial and slope processes dominate in the lower mountain ranges, with the flysch mountains in particular being significantly affected by the occurrence of landslides.

From the hydrological point of view, the study area is located on the Main European watershed. It converges southwards via the Váh River to the Danube River and the Black Sea, and northwards via the Dunajec River to the Vistula River and the Baltic Sea. The most important tributaries of the Váh River within the study area are the Orava River and the Belá River, while the tributaries of the Dunajec River include the Poprad River and the Białka River. Most of the lakes are located in the Tatra Mountains and are of glacial origin. In the Spišská Magura Mountains, we can find several smaller landslide-dammed lakes (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4

Hydrology of the study area (based on the hydrological map of Turbek (1980), the hydrogeological maps of Chowaniec and Witek (1997a, b), Skąpski and Garbacz (1997), Małecka et al. (2002a, b), and the map of the hydrographic division of Poland available online at www.kzgw.gov.pl.

In the study area, 44 geosites were inventoried and then subjected to valorisation (Fig. 5). They were finally selected through several steps. First, a library search was conducted, consisting of a review of both scientific and popular science literature describing the Sub-Tatra region in search of descriptions of geographically interesting places. Here, guides to conference field sessions (e.g., Gradziński, Mrozińska-Broda 2004, Gradziński et al. 2015) proved very useful. The next step was to identify these objects in the field and check their availability and the possibility of observing forms and explaining the phenomena that led to their creation. Finally, from over 200 inventoried geosites in the entire Sub-Tatra region (on both the Slovak and Polish sides), the 44 best preserved objects in Slovakia were selected and subjected to expert valuation. These consist of rock outcrops, including travertines and quarries, viewpoints, peat bogs, lakes, fragments of river valleys, waterfalls, caves, springs, landslides, and the ruins of buildings related to the local culture and built using local rock materials. Full descriptions of all geosites have been published (Chrobak, Bąk 2019), while their most important features have been published online (Chrobak-Žuffová et al. 2025) as asupplementary file to this article.

Fig. 5.

Locations of geosites.

The analysis of the natural characteristics and scientific data of the Sub-Tatra region and verification in the field in terms of assessing the value of abiotic nature showed that this is an area with very high geotourism potential. Based on this and using the valuation method for selected geosites, based on a number of cognitive, educational and tourist criteria, 44 geosites were inventoried. Among them, objects related to various elements of the geological structure, various forms of relief and various hydrological elements predominate, but the places whose locations are related to the occurrence of travertines in the geological substrate stand out. They are located in the area of the Liptovská kotlina Basin, the Kozie chrbty Mountains and the tectonic structure of Ružbachy. The north-western part of the Oravská vrchovina Mountains, where the formations of the Pieniny Klippen Belt and the Chočské vrchy Mountains occur, has equally high geotourism potential. These places themselves can be the main destinations for tourism. These areas have a large lithological diversity of the substrate, a large number of microscale and mesoscale tectonic structures, and diverse, mainly karst, relief. They also include viewpoints, which, through the possibility of observing many types of landscapes, acquire a high educational value, especially in terms of regional aspects related to the observation of the relief of the Tatra Mountains, the Nízke Tatry Mountains and the Tatra Foothills (Skorušinské vrchy Mountains, Spišská Magura Mountains, and Pogórza Przedtatrzańskie Mountains).

The locations of the geosites, most of which are grouped within short distances of each other, in regions with a high degree of geodiversity, make it possible to connect them using roads or tourist trails, which is an additional factor that led to the high geotourism values in the assessment of this region.

The Sub-Tatra region has long traditions related to tourism; this is documented by the results of analyses of various tourist indicators based on data on the number of tourists and accommodation facilities in this region. They indicate that the best-developed administrative units are those that include the Tatra Mountains or the Nízke Tatry Mountains.

The analysis of the geotourism potential of the Sub-Tatra region presented in this work conveys a message to individuals and local government units about the possible additional tourist promotion of various parts of Spiš, Orava and Liptov. The method of promoting the geosites selected in this work could take various forms that are currently used in marketing for this type of tourist product, such as information panels in appropriate places, descriptions of geosites in various types of mobile applications, tourist guides or geological and tourist maps for the Sub-Tatra region. Enriching the tourist offerings of the Sub-Tatra region with geoattractions could, even if only to a small extent, contribute to ‘moving’ some of the tourist traffic out of the crowded Tatra Mountains. This will be influenced primarily by guides, teachers, and organisers of tourist trips.

However, the results of expert assessment represent only part of the assessment of the geotourism potential of this region. These studies will probably be complemented by studies of tourist preferences, which have already been partially done and indicated specific types of geosites as the most attractive ones, that is viewpoints, river gorges and travertine outcrops (Chrobak-Žuffová 2023). The authors of this article plan to conduct further studies and public consultations to be able to select the most attractive geosites possible.