<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title> Vocabulary acquisition is a dynamic process and there is a constant change in the way words are stored in the mental lexicon. Word association tests are used in linguistic research to observe to which extent mental mapping can be understood. This paper presents the results of a word association game consisting of seven words administered to second language speakers, and native speakers for comparative purposes. The results indicate the possibility of a link between experiences and associations, which leads to the recommendation for teachers to create activities and new experiences that demand the learner’s personal involvement in expanding their vocabulary.</abstract>

Exploration of the relationship between word-association and learners’ lexical development with a focus on American L1 and Croatian L2 speakers

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The use of synonymy and near-synonymy allows us to differently express similar ideas and meanings, as well as perspectives. However, their use and nuances may be unclear to language learners, such as the selected case of the verbs <italic>explain</italic> and <italic>clarify</italic>. This paper examines the usage of the two verbs by looking into corpus data and uses Sinclair's methodological procedure as an alternative to dictionary references. Also included is a discussion of aspects and criticisms of corpus linguistics, mentions (and uses of) computer technologies for the analysis of language by discovering usage patterns, significant exceptions and semantic prosody, and exploring whether using corpora in the classroom would be beneficial to language learners.</abstract>

Corpus based study of verbs <italic>explain</italic> and <italic>clarify</italic> as an example of assistance in pedagogical settings

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Impelled by the observation that motivation might be one of the most important factors within the affective domain influencing foreign language learning (FLL), the field of second language acquisition (SLA) has seen an intense worldwide interest in empirical research in motivational issues. The studies have been rooted in different theories and methodologies, (most notably those advanced by Gardner and Dörnyei and their respective associates) that have given precedence to a number of variables assumed to play an important role in understanding the phenomenon of FLL motivation. The present study is set between the macroperspective of the social-psychological period–by giving a general view of second language motivation–and the situation-specific period–by taking into consideration the immediate learning context. It focuses on exploring the nature of FLL motivation in Croatia at secondary education level where FLL is part of core curriculum. In particular, it explores the role of one specific contextual variable that has been largely ignored in SLA motivational research, i.e. type of school environment, and its interaction with gender and success in FLL.</abstract>

Motivation in foreign language learning: a look at type of school environment as a contextual variable

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>This study aims to identify the main cross-linguistic criteria for compoundhood discussed in the relevant literature, with a special focus on English, ranking them from the most reliable to the least. These criteria - orthographic, phonological, syntactic and semantic in nature - have been proposed to make a distinction between compounds and phrases. The analysis reveals that the most reliable cross-linguistic criteria to distinguish between phrases and compounds are adjacency and referentiality. With regard to the former criterion, no intervening elements can be inserted between the head and the non-head of compounds, whilst such insertion is allowed in phrases. With regard to the latter criterion, the non-head of a phrase is always referential, whereas the non-head of a compound is normally non-referential. Other criteria have been found to be partially applicable, e.g. free pluralisation of the non-head, compositionality, stress, possibilities for modification and coordination, ellipsis, orthography and the replacement of the second element by a pro-form. The study also proposes a definition for compounds that may be the most widely applicable. Finally, the study concludes with ranking the main criteria for compoundhood discussed in the study.</abstract>

What is a compound? The main criteria for compoundhood

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>This preliminary study of 285 morphological and cognitive blends (attestation dates 1200-2012) aims to investigate the role of phonesthemes in the structuring of the English lexicon. A study of <italic>OED</italic> word origins shows a disparity between older (1200-1900) and recent blends (1903-2012). Sound symbolism plays an overriding role in over 50% of older blends, leading to a study of initial phonesthemes (i.e. consonant clusters). Several case studies of diachronic semantic shift attested in the <italic>OED</italic> point to the existence of multidirectional motivation ties. This preliminary study supports the psycholinguistic theory that 1) there is a structured secondary sound symbolism in English, and that 2) it is still productive today and may play a role in the creation of neologisms as well as ensuring their survival (see Bergen, 2010: 52). A more in-depth usage-based analysis using sophisticated measurement tools is the next step in the study.</abstract>

The phonesthetics of blends: A lexicographic study of cognitive blends in the OED

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The learner’s own language (commonly referred to as ‘L1’ or ‘first language’) has been neglected as a resource in the learning of another language and, in some contexts, it has been banned altogether. The arguments in favour of own-language exclusion are not supported by research and the policy is not followed by a majority of teachers. A reconsideration of these arguments and an awareness of practical suggestions for drawing on the learners’ own language as a resource for learning may help language teachers to enrich their repertoire of teaching techniques and activities.</abstract>

The learner’s own language

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
The ability of chatbots to produce plausible, human-like responses raises questions about the extent of their similarity with original texts. Using a modified version of Halliday’s clause-complexing framework, this study compared 50 abstracts of scientific research articles from Nature with generated versions produced by Bard, ChatGPT, and Poe Assistant. None of the chatbots matched the original abstracts in all categories. The only chatbot that came closest was ChatGPT, but differences in the use of finite adverbial clauses and –<italic>ing</italic> elaborating clauses were detected. Incorporating distinct grammatical features in the algorithms of AI-detection tools is crucially needed to enhance the reliability of their results. A genre-based approach to detecting AI-generated content is recommended.
</abstract>

Clause complexing in research-article abstracts:  Comparing human- and AI-generated texts

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) equips learners in all settings with the knowledge, skills, attributes, and visions essential for coping with the diverse challenges they will encounter in their educational endeavors. The emergence of COVID-19 influenced different aspects of human life including education. Thanks to technology, especially ICT, Virtual Education (VE) provides the opportunity to continue education in such crises. Amidst this pandemic, many students, especially university students, encountered various challenges and impediments that resulted from VE. One of the factors which can affect VE is learners’ resilience. Therefore, it is of high importance to measure university students’ Resilience in Virtual Education (RVE) to recognize the advantages and disadvantages of this type of education and support ESD. The main purpose of this study is to design and validate a comprehensive instrument for measuring university students’ RVE. Furthermore, to confirm the validity and reliability of the instrument, its nexus with a closely related construct, i.e., second language (L2) buoyancy was explored. To measure students’ RVE, a new scale (RVE Scale), comprising 33 items, was designed. It was designed based on the operational definition of academic resilience and was adapted to accommodate the requirements of VE. It measures six aspects of learners’ resilience: emotional, motivational, cognitive, metacognitive, persistence, and sociability. To measure L2 buoyancy, a relevant scale designed by Jahedizadeh et al. (2019) was utilized. It consists of 27 items with four factors; the factors include sustainability, regularity adaptation, positive personal eligibility, and positive acceptance of academic life. A total of 412 university students participated in the present research. The results obtained via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) substantiated the validity of the newly designed scale and all the factors and items. The results attested to the criterion-related validity of the scale.
</abstract>

Resilience in virtual education: Designing and validating a scale in higher education

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
The genre system of grant application has gained attention from researchers in Applied Linguistics, Discourse Studies, and Higher Education. However, the grant recommendation letter (GRL), also known as the “letter of support”, has been understudied in this system. To address this gap, this study examined the persuasive strategies used in GRLs. Using Aristotle’s Theory of Persuasion and a qualitative inductive discourse analysis, we analysed 90 GRLS. The findings revealed that GRLs employ different frequencies of ethos, logos, and pathos to influence the grant committee. The writers primarily emphasised rational justifications for the applicant’s qualifications, while also demonstrating ethos through appropriate personal traits. Personal pronouns were used to perform discursive functions as well. Based on the findings, we offer implications for pedagogy and further research on GRLs.
</abstract>

Persuasive strategies in grant recommendation letters written by senior faculty in a Ghanaian university

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
The article contributes to the discussion of writing at the master’s level by investigating metaphors underlying the process of writing a master’s thesis from the perspective of graduate students. The analysis focuses on the use of metaphors in semi-structured interviews conducted with graduate students who defended their thesis and reflected on the whole process. Their metaphor use is non-elicited and this rhetorical device is spontaneously used showing that thesis writers conceptualize their research and all it entails in metaphorical terms to a significant extent. Despite the fact that thesis writers themselves were not encouraged to pay attention to or use metaphorical language, their narratives reveal the interplay of metaphors when describing the writing process.
</abstract>

The power of metaphor in thesis writing process

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
The present study investigated advanced Croatian EFL learners’ knowledge of five meanings of the English nominal (deverbal) suffix -<italic>er</italic>. It probed their ability to comprehend and produce corpus-rare and presumably unentrenched -<italic>er</italic> nouns in their prototypical agent and instrument meanings and their non-prototypical patient, locative, and causative meanings. It was hypothesized that participants would deal effortlessly with agent and instrument meanings of the low-frequency nouns since the corpus-attested high type frequency of -<italic>er</italic> agents and instruments, among others, suggests the existence of productive corresponding schemas. We hypothesized that participants would struggle with patient, locative and causative meanings of the low-frequency nouns since the corpus-attested low type frequency of the three functions arguably does not support their association with -<italic>er</italic>. A recognition and a production test were administered to two separate groups of English majors at a Croatian public university (n = 131). Results confirm general usage-based predictions about better performance with low-frequency agent and instrument -<italic>er</italic> nouns. However, a detailed examination reveals unexpected results, which confirm that frequency, however important, is not the only factor to include in a future model of EFL learners’ derivational proficiency.
</abstract>

Acquisition of English nominal suffix -<italic>er</italic> by advanced EFL learners: a view from usage-based perspective

<abstract>
<title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>
The study delineates divergences that set apart the Ugandan accent from RP with respect to primary lexical stress placement, as well as divergences that evince variability among Ugandans. For example, differences from RP were (almost) homogenously observed in the words <italic>effect, cassava, agreement</italic>, <italic>arrest, alarm</italic>, with stress placed on the first syllable of all these nouns, while inter-speaker variability was substantially observed in words such as <italic>bursar, further,</italic> with some speakers placing stress on both syllables of the words, while others had the stress on the first syllable only. Analogy and underlying substrate influence account for the divergences, with substrate influence considered along the lines of what Wells (1982) refers to as ‘lexical distribution.
</abstract>

Homogeneity and heterogeneity in lexical stress placement among Ugandan speakers of English as an L2: a view from usage-based perspective

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>In spring 2020 both teachers and learners experienced the interruption of education as it had been established for over 150 years and seemed to be unchangeable. The paper focuses on students’ perspectives on how they perceive the changes in learning due to the pandemic educational emergency response based on the results of a survey of students in four countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Poland and Turkey. We aim at discussing the data collected at the end of the 2019-2020 Spring semester. The research focuses on the accessibility of the tools for learning, modes of instruction, as well as interaction patterns. In addition, we present students’ opinions on the difficulties they experienced, the learning strategies they adopted and what aspects of online learning should remain as a regular educational practice after the pandemic period.</abstract>

Emergency online learning during the first Covid-19 period: students’ perspectives from Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Poland and Turkey

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Applying MIPVU (Steen et al., 2010) to the corpus of media articles about the European migrant crisis in the period from August 2015 until March 2016 in English and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian, this paper analyzes the IMMIGRANTS ARE ANIMALS metaphor within the framework of the deliberate metaphor theory by considering the three dimensions of this metaphor, namely, the linguistic dimension of (in)directness, the conceptual parameter of conventionality, and the communicative dimension of (non)deliberateness. Specifically, the paper examines the use of the ANIMALS metaphor as a deliberate metaphor in the immigration discourse in English and Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. The paper aims to determine to what extent and in which situations the authors of the texts tend to divert the addressee’s attention to viewing immigrants in terms of animals. Using the IDeM protocol for the identification of deliberate metaphor (Krennmayr, 2011), the paper also focuses on the rhetorical potential and the effects of the use of deliberate metaphors in the media discourse. Such metaphors are often used in the media discourse to dehumanize immigrants and consequently reduce the addressee’s empathy for them.</abstract>

The IMMIGRANTS ARE ANIMALS metaphor as a deliberate metaphor in British and Bosnian-Herzegovinian media

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The aim of this qualitative study was to investigate boredom among Croatian primary and secondary school teachers of English. The data was gathered by means of an open-ended survey that focused on the teachers’ experiences with classroom boredom. The findings pointed to different causes of boredom in the Croatian FLT context, such as grammar tasks and uninteresting subject matter. Croatian teachers reported various manifestations of boredom, i.e. cognitive and motivational, as well as diverse emotion regulation strategies employed, such as introducing new content or engaging in physical activity. Majority of the teachers stated that boredom did not affect their instructional quality, however there were those who reported having observed adverse effects in their classrooms.</abstract>

Investigating boredom among EFL teachers

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>Studies have shown that second language (L2) motivation can have an impact on L2 learning processes. The aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in L2 motivation among Croatian university students from the perspective of the L2MSS. The results indicated that females were more motivated than males to learn English, had higher levels of interest in English, while differences in L2 anxiety were somewhat ambiguous. Females also demonstrated that their L2 motivation was linked to motives related to the avoidance of negative outcomes suggesting that females are perhaps more conscientious learners compared to males. These findings point to a complex motivational state among females, which may indicate important gender-based differences in language learning.</abstract>

The L2 motivational self system, L2 interest, and L2 anxiety: A study of motivation and gender differences in the Croatian context

<abstract><title style='display:none'>Abstract</title>The main aim of education is to provide students with academic knowledge and skills. In this process, some students experience burnout, which negatively affects their productivity and effectiveness. This study experimentally examines the impact of mindfulness-based instruction on burnout and students’ achievement in receptive language skills among 64 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) via a mixed-methods approach (QUAN→ qual) within a single framework. The techniques implemented in the experimental group, i. e. 32 participants, included <italic>observance of all experience</italic>, <italic>analyzing</italic>, <italic>planning</italic>, <italic>judging</italic>, <italic>reasoning</italic>, and <italic>fantasizing</italic> (van Vreeswijk et al., 2014). Furthermore, the techniques were inspired by Pirson et al. (2012) conceptualization that mindfulness comprises novelty producing, novelty seeking, engagement, and flexibility. The results of posttest revealed these techniques efficiently enhanced the abovementioned variables.</abstract>

Differences in EFL learners’ burnout levels and receptive language skills with regard to the mindfulness-based instruction

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Explorations in English Language and Linguistics

 ExELL (Explorations in English Language and Linguistics) is an international peer-reviewed electronic journal, published as a joint project of the School of English Studies of the...

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 ExELL (Explorations in English Language and Linguistics) is an international peer-reviewed electronic journal, published as a joint project...

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Explorations in English Language and Linguistics

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