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Vitamin D Supplementation During COVID-19 Lockdown and After 20 Months: Follow-Up Study on Slovenian Women Aged Between 44 and 66

Vid VIČIČ
Vid VIČIČ
 and 
Ruža PANDEL MIKUŠ
Ruža PANDEL MIKUŠ
   | Oct 04, 2023
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Article Category: Original scientific article
Published Online: Oct 04, 2023
Page range: 182 - 189
Received: Sep 06, 2023
Accepted: Sep 11, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/sjph-2023-0026
Keywords
© 2023 Vid VIČIČ et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

Figure 1.

Flowchart of the study that included healthy women aged 44 to 65 from the Central Slovenian region. The study was carried out between March and May 2021, and the follow-up study between October and November 2022.
Flowchart of the study that included healthy women aged 44 to 65 from the Central Slovenian region. The study was carried out between March and May 2021, and the follow-up study between October and November 2022.

Figure 2.

Total vitamin D intake of non-supplementers (top) and supplementers (bottom) (>5 µg/d). Both histograms are at the same scale (0-145 µg/d).
Total vitamin D intake of non-supplementers (top) and supplementers (bottom) (>5 µg/d). Both histograms are at the same scale (0-145 µg/d).

Figure 3.

Percentage of participants who have reported to have started or increased vitamin D supplementation due to COVID-19, in study and follow-up.
Percentage of participants who have reported to have started or increased vitamin D supplementation due to COVID-19, in study and follow-up.

Figure 4.

Seasonal rate of supplementation with vitamin D during the year in premenopausal and postmenopausal women vitamin D supplementers aged 44-65 from the Central Slovenian region (n=76). Participants marked each month individually or chose the whole year.
Seasonal rate of supplementation with vitamin D during the year in premenopausal and postmenopausal women vitamin D supplementers aged 44-65 from the Central Slovenian region (n=76). Participants marked each month individually or chose the whole year.

Results from the online follow-up questionnaire of 123 healthy women aged 44 to 65 from the Central Slovenian region, included in the follow-up study carried out between October and November 2022 (n=123).

Variables Category/Unit Total n=123 Supplementers n=76 Non-supplementers n=47 p-value
Vitamin D supplementation
Supplement use (≥5 μg vitamin D/d) 61.8% 100,0% 0.0%
Supplemental intake μg/d 21.6±25.9 34.9±24.9 0.12±0.7 <0.001 t
COVID-19 related changes in lifestyle and vitamin D supplementation
Started/increased vitamin D supplementation 61.0% 63.2% 57.4% 0.522 z
COVID-19 impact on time spent outside No impact 51.2% 51.3% 51.1% 0.984 z
Increased 37.4% 38.2% 36.2% 0.826 z
Decreased 11.4% 10.5% 12.8% 0.697 z
Effect of participation in study on vitamin D supplementation No effect 51.8% 42.0% 62.8% 0.026 z
Positive effect 48.2% 57.8% 37.2% 0.026 z

Population characteristics, vitamin D status, supplementation and food intake of healthy women aged 44 to 65, from the Central Slovenian region. The study was carried out between March and May 2021 (n=176).

Variables Category/Unit Total n=176 Supplementers n=108 Non-supplementers n=68 p-value
Age year 53.8±5.0 54.3±4.8 53.1±5.2 0.120 t
Menstrual status Premenopause 39.2% 34.3% 47.1% 0.091z
Postmenopause 60.8% 65.7% 52.9% 0.091z
BMI (self-reported) kg/m2 25.7±4.4 25.5±4.2 26.1±4.6 0.375 t
Smoking Current smoker 13.1% 13.0% 22.1% 0.114 z
Education (ISCED) Primary (L1) 3.4% 1.9% 5.9%
Secondary (L2-3) 29.0% 27.8% 30.9%
Short-cycle tertiary (L5) 14.2% 14.8% 13.2%
Bachelor’s or eq. (L6) 13.6% 13.0% 14.7%
Master’s or eq. (L7) 29.0% 31.5% 25.0%
Doctoral or eq. (L8) 10.8% 11.1% 10.3%
Time spent outside min 53.3±17.7 54.3±16.4 51.8±19.6 0.363 t
Moderate physical activity h/week 3.2±4.2 3.0±3.3 3.5±5.4 0.447 t
Sunscreen use 90.9% 92.6% 88.2% 0.322 z
Suntanning habits High exposure 6.8% 4.6% 10.3% 0.1443 z
Medium exposure 64.2% 58.3% 73.5% 0.040 z
Low exposure 29.0% 37.0% 16.2% 0.003 z
Laboratory analysis
25(OH)D nmol/L 66.4±27.4 76.2±27.1 50.8±19.6 <0.001 t
<30 8.5% 3.7% 16.2% 0.004 z
30-50 15.9% 6.5% 30.9% <0.001 z
50-75 43.2% 44.4% 41.2% 0.675 z
>75 32.4% 45.4% 11.8% <0.001 z
DBP mg/L 576±436 608±485 526±342 0.226 t
Albumin g/L 47.1±2.2 47.5±2.2 46.5±2.1 0.003 t
Bioavailable 25(OH)D nmol/L 5.7±4.5 6.7±4.9 4.3±3.1 <0.001 t
Vitamin D intake and supplementation
Food intake (μg/d) 2.2±1.3 2.2±1.4 2.1±1.2 0.627 t
Supplement use (≥5 μg vitamin D/d) 61.4% 100,0% 0.0%
Supplemental intake (μg/d) 21.7±26.2 35.4±25.3 0±0.08 <0.001 t
Intake all sources (μg/d) 24.1±26.2 37.6±25.2 2.5±3.3 <0.001 t
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Language:
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Journal Subjects:
Medicine, Clinical Medicine, Hygiene and Environmental Medicine
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