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New Epidemic of Malnutrition in Young Slovenian Athletes

Eva Peklaj
Eva Peklaj
, 
Nina Reščič
Nina Reščič
, 
Barbara Koroušić Seljak
Barbara Koroušić Seljak
 and 
Nada Rotovnik Kozjek
Nada Rotovnik Kozjek
   | Jun 13, 2023
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Article Category: Original scientific article
Published Online: Jun 13, 2023
Page range: 121 - 128
Received: Nov 20, 2022
Accepted: Mar 29, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/sjph-2023-0017
Keywords
© 2023 Eva Peklaj et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

Figure 1.

Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders and performance problems.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders and performance problems.

Figure 2.

Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related health disorders.

Figure 3.

Distribution of number of RED-S-related performance problems.
Distribution of number of RED-S-related performance problems.

Anthropometric characteristics and disease states of athletes.

Middle adolescents (14–17 years) Late adolescents (18–21 years)
Female Male Female Male
Average height [cm] 167.8±5.6 176.4±12.6 168.6±5.9 179.1±7.1
Average body mass [kg] 57.5±10 65.8±13 58.1±8.3 74.3±8.7
Average BMI [kg/cm2] 20.4±2.7 20.9±2.1 20.4±2.5 22.9±2.6
Body fat [%] 20.7±4.7 12.8±5.7 17.3±3.5 9.6±3.5
FFMI [kg/cm2] 16.1±1.8 18.1±1.7 16.5±1.1 20.4±2.4
Chronic illness [number of athletes] Asthma (5), Chronic gastritis (4), Hashimoto thyroiditis (2), Atopic dermatitis (1) Asthma (5)Chronic gastritis (2)Gastro oesophageal reflux disease (1), Arterial hypertension (1), Atopic dermatitis (1)
Hours training per week [h] 16.9±0.6 19.2±1.0
Type of sport [number of athletes] Anaerobic: acrobatics (1), skiing (1), sprint (4), gymnastics (1), wild water kayak (1), climbing (1)Aerobic: long distance running (4), biathlon (3), road cycling (1), mountain biking (1), mountain running (2), rowing (6), cross country skiing (3), triathlon (2)Aerobic-anaerobic: heptathlon (1), middle distance running (4), badminton (1), hockey (3), basketball (2), football (14), Nordic combine (1), short and middle-distance swimming (20), dance (1), handball (1), figure skating (1), tennis (4) Anaerobic: skiing (1), snowboarding (1), triple jump (1) sprint (2), wild water kayak (4), climbing (2), ski jumping (4)Aerobic: long distance running (1), biathlon (4), rowing (2), cross country skiing (3), triathlon (1)Aerobic-anaerobic: heptathlon (1), Nordic combine (1), volleyball (1), short and middle-distance swimming (3), handball (1), tennis (1)

Number of RED-S-related health disorders and performance problems in nutrition-related risk factors. Rows in the first column are the potential nutrition-related risk factors, and the numbers in the following columns are the numbers of RED-s related (with standard deviation) in athletes that have the particular nutritional risk (YES column) or don’t have this risk (NO column).

Comparison by gender Comparison by age group
All Female Male Middle Adolescents (14–17 year) Late Adolescents (18–21 year)
Yes No p-value Yes No p-value Yes No p-value Yes No p-value Yes No p-value
CHO< 3g/kg body mass 4.2±1.9 3.3±2.0 0.05 4.9±2.0 4.2±2.0 0.20 3.0±0.8 2.6±1.6 0.32 4.6±1.8 3.5±1.9 0.02 2.2±1.0 3.0±2.0 0.50
CHO<6g/kg body mass 3.6±2.0 3.2±1.9 0.32 4.4±2.0 3.9±2.1 0.43 2.6±1.3 2.8±1.8 0.51 4.0±2.0 3.1±1.7 0.09 2.8±1.7 3.2±2.5 0.70
Dietary fibre intake>35 g 4.0±2.1 3.5±1.9 0.40 4.5±2.2 4.3±2.0 0.76 2.7±1.5 2.6±1.5 0.90 4.6±1.8 3.7±1.9 0.17 2.3±2.3 3.0±1.9 0.58
LEA 3.5±2.0 3.7±1.8 0.45 4.4±2.1 4.0±1.9 0.48 2.4±1.3 3.5±1.7 0.03 3.9±2.0 3.5±1.7 0.56 2.6±1.8 5.0±1.8 0.03
Desire to lose body weight 4.6±1.8 3.3±1.9 0.002 5.8±1.4 4.0±2.0 0.006 3.5±1.4 2.4±1.4 0.02 5.2±1.8 2.4±1.4 0.003 3.8±1.7 2.7±1.9 0.13
Lost weight in past year 4.6±1.8 3.3±1.9 0.002 5.8±1.4 4.0±2.0 0.006 3.5 ± 1.4 2.4±1.4 0.02 5.2±1.8 2.4±1.4 0.003 3.8±1.7 2.7±1.9 0.13
Meal 2–3h before training 3.5±2.0 5.5±0.7 0.09 4.3±2.0 5.5±0.7 0.26 2.6 ± 1.5 / / 2.8±1.9 5.0 0.19 3.7±1.9 6.0 0.25
Meal 1h before training 3.3±1.9 4.5±1.9 0.01 4.2±2.0 4.8±2.1 0.18 2.5 ± 1.5 3.7±1.3 0.03 3.5±1.9 4.9±1.7 0.005 2.9±1.9 2.8±1.9 0.96
Meal after training 3.4±2.0 4.5±0.9 0.05 4.3±2.1 4.5±0.6 0.84 2.5 ± 1.4 4.5±1.3 0.01 3.7±2.0 4.6±1.0 0.10 2.9±1.9 4.0 0.54
Have suitable meal before, during and after training 3.4±1.8 3.6±2.0 0.81 4.2±1.6 4.4±2.2 0.63 2.3± 1.5 2.7±1.5 0.40 3.5±2.0 3.8±1.9 0.46 3.2±1.4 2.8±2.1 0.47
Takes dietary supplements 3.6±2.0 3.3±1.9 0.48 4.5±2.1 4.0±1.9 0.38 2.6 ± 1.3 2.7±1.8 0.97 3.9±2.0 3.5±1.9 0.45 3.0±1.8 2.8±2.2 0.68

Prevalence of RED-S-related health disorder.

RED-S-related health disorders Middle adolescents (14–17 years) Late adolescents (18–21 years)
Female Male Female Male
Y N Prev. Y N Prev. Y N Prev. Y N Prev.
Reproductive system
Primary amenorrhea (F) 3 43 6.5% 0 15 0%
Secondary amenorrhea (F) 13 33 28.2% 5 10 35.7%
Other disorders (F) 18 28 39.1% 5 10 33.3%
Low testosterone (M) 1 37 2.6% 0 19 0%
Immunological system
Several viral infections 22 24 47.8% 15 23 39.5% 5 10 33.3% 4 15 21.1%
Lymphopenia 1 28 3.4% 1 18 5.2% 1 10 9.1% 0 12 0%
Leukopenia 3 26 10.3% 1 19 5% 2 10 16.7% 1 11 8.3%
Skeletal system
Stress fractures 3 43 6.5% 0 38 0% 0 15 0% 0 19 0%
Osteoporosis/Osteopenia 3 43 6.5% 0 38 0% 0 15 0% 0 19 0%
Endocrine system
T3<3.1 pmol/l 0 7 0% 0 3 0% 0 2 0% 0 1 0%
T4<12 pmol/l 0 7 0% 1 2 33.3% 1 1 50% 1 0 100%
Glucose<4 mmol/l 1 18 5.2% 0 16 0% 1 7 12.5% 1 10 9.1%
TSH < 0.5 mU/l 0 9 0% 0 5 0% 0 2 0% 0 1 0%
TSH>4.3 mU/l 2 7 22.2% 0 5 0% 0 2 0% 0 1 0%
Haematological system
Ferritin<30 µg/l 7 21 25% 3 16 15.8% 2 7 22.2% 1 11 8.3%
Iron<10µmol/l 2 24 7.7% 2 15 11.7% 1 9 10% 0 12 0%
Haemoglobin < 120 g/l 0 30 0% 0 20 0% 0 12 0% 0 12 0%
Psychological disorders
Eating disorders 7 39 15.2% 1 37 2.6% 3 12 20% 0 19 0%
Disordered eating 30 16 65.2% 12 21 44.7% 7 8 46.7% 7 12 36.8%
Psychological problems 29 17 63.0% 8 29 21.6% 6 9 40% 1 18 5.3%
Cardiovascular system
Cholesterol<4 mmol/l 7 14 33.3% 8 9 47.1% 3 3 50% 3 8 27.3%
Cholesterol >5.2 mmol/l 1 20 4.8% 0 17 0% 2 4 33.3% 2 9 18.2%
HDL-cholesterol<1.45 mmol/l 2 6 25% 3 6 33.3% 1 2 33.3% 0 2 0%
LDL-cholesterol>2.59 mmol/l 3 5 37.5% 4 6 40% 1 2 33.3% 1 1 50%
Triglycerides>2.62 mmol/l 0 8 0% 0 8 0% 0 3 0% 0 2 0%
Gastrointestinal system
Gastrointestinal disorders 13 33 28.2% 0 38 0% 3 12 20% 3 16 15.8%
Digestion disorders (gastritis, constipation, diarrhoea, gastroesophageal reflux) 4 42 8.7% 0 38 0% 1 14 6.7% 1 18 5.3%
Growth and development disorders
Growth disorders 4 42 8.7% 6 32 15.8% 1 14 6.7% 0 19 0%
RED-S-related performance problems
Problems in training process
Tiredness 35 11 76.1% 24 14 63.2% 12 3 80% 13 6 68.4%
Muscle cramps 8 38 17.4% 13 25 34.2% 1 14 6.7% 8 11 42.1%
Other problems (Concentration, coordination, strength…) 33 13 71.7% 21 17 55% 10 5 66.7% 12 7 63.2%
Other problems
Recurring injury 13 33 28.2% 3 35 7.9% 1 14 6.7% 5 14 26.3%
Maintaining focus 18 28 39.1% 5 33 13.2% 2 13 13.3% 0 19 0%
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