Inosine pranobex (Methiosprinol, ISO, Isoprinosine) is a synthetic active substance composed of the p-acetamidobenzoate salt of N, N-dimethylamino-2-propanol and inosine at a 3:1 molar ratio (3). The drug exerts both modest antiviral (3, 17) and immuno-stimulatory and immuno-restorative effects (16, 25). It has been found effective in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (5), herpes virus infections (17), and some other viral infections (3, 17). Treatment with inosine pranobex was also beneficial for HIV-infected patients not only due to the stimulation of the immune system but also due to its effect on folate synthesis being helpful against
The safety profile of inosine pranobex in humans has been shown through clinical trials for a few indications and populations (11, 12, 18, 29). The toxicological effects of this product have not been deeply studied.
Inosine pranobex stimulates a non-specific immune response that is independent of the specific viral antigen responsible for IL-1 production. In clinical trials, inosine pranobex has been shown to induce a type 1 T helper cell-type response in mitogen- or antigen-activated cells. This response initiates T-lymphocyte maturation and differentiation and potentiates induced lymphoproliferative responses (11, 20, 29). In like manner, this compound modulates T-lymphocyte and NK cell cytotoxicity and CD8+ suppressor and CD4+ helper cell functions and increases the number of immunoglobulin γ and complement surface markers (11, 29). The drug increases cytokine interleukin IL-1 and IL-2 production and upregulates the expression of the IL-2 receptor
Regulatory authorities for pharmaceuticals require an extensive assessment of their genotoxic potential. Comprehensive reviews have shown that many substances that are mutagenic in the bacterial reverse mutation (Ames) test are also rodent carcinogens. The use of mammalian cells in
1. assessment of mutagenicity in a bacterial reverse gene mutation test by Ames;
2. genotoxicity evaluated in mammalian cells
The aim of the presented work was to investigate the genotoxicity and mutagenicity of inosine pranobex on BALB/3T3 clone A1 and HepG2 cells. HepG2 cells have been adapted to the micronucleus assay and many publications suggest that a comet assay can also be performed on HepG2 cells. Accordingly, the micronucleus assay and comet assay were performed. Evaluation of the mutagenic activity of inosine pranobex was investigated in the
Inosine pranobex (Methisoprinol, MTP 3110261) was dissolved in deionised water at the concentration of 10 mg/mL. The final concentration was obtained by dilution in the culture medium, supplemented with serum and antibiotics (24).
In order to perform the comet and micronucleus assays, the cells were cultured on 96-well plates (2 × 105 cells/mL) in 100 μL culture medium, supplemented with serum and Antibiotic Antimycotic solution (1 mL per 100 mL of cell culture medium). After 24 h, the medium was exchanged for fresh media supplemented with inosine pranobex at final concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 μg/mL in a volume of 100 μL. All concentrations mentioned above were the final concentrations in the incubations. After 24 h of incubation, the comet and micronucleus assays were performed.
The comet assay is a technique for measuring DNA damage in individual cells. Under an electrophoretic field, damaged cellular DNA is separated from intact DNA, yielding a classic “comet tail” shape visible under a microscope. The extent of DNA damage is visually estimated by comet tail measurement. Typical measurements are the percentage of DNA in the tail (normalised to total cell DNA) and tail moment. Tail moment is a damage measure combining the amount of DNA in the tail with the distance of migration (severity of damage).
Lysis buffer, alkaline solution, TBE electrophoresis solution and visa green dye were prepared according to the manufacturer's instruction and stored at 4ºC. Comet agarose was heated at 90–95ºC in a water bath for 20 min, following which the bottle with agarose was transferred to a water bath at 37ºC. A 96-well comet slide was heated at 37ºC for 15 min to promote agarose attachment. Cells were trypsinised, centrifuged at 700 × g for 2 min, and the cell pellet washed once with ice-cold PBS (without Mg2+ or Ca2+) and centrifuged once again. Finally, the cells were resuspended at 1 × 105 cells/mL in ice-cold PBS (without Mg2+ or Ca2+). In a pre-warmed 96-well plate, cell samples with agarose were combined at 1:10 ratio (v/v). The mixture of cells and agarose was titrated to mix, and immediately 20 μL per well were pipetted onto the pre-warmed comet slide using a multichannel micro-pipette. The slide was kept in the dark for 15 min at 4ºC. Next the slide was transferred to a small container containing pre-chilled lysis buffer and incubated in the dark again for 30–60 min at 4ºC. The lysis buffer was carefully aspirated from the container and replaced with pre-chilled alkaline solution and the slide was incubated in the dark in the solution for the final time for 30 min at 4ºC. Next, the alkaline aspirate solution from the container was aspirated and replaced with pre-chilled TBE electrophoresis solution. The slide was immersed in TBE electrophoresis solution for 5 min. The slide was kept perfectly horizontal and carefully transferred to a horizontal electrophoresis chamber, which was filled with cold TBE electrophoresis solution until the buffer level covered the slide. Voltage was applied to the chamber for 10–15 min at 1 volt/cm. The slide was subsequently carefully transferred from the electrophoresis chamber to a clean small container containing pre-chilled DI H2O where it was immersed for 2 min. Next, the water was exchanged for cold 70% ethanol. The slide was removed horizontally to allow it to air dry, and once the agarose and slide were completely dry, 50 μL/well of diluted vista green DNA dye was added. The slide was analysed to the extent of 100 cells per sample under epifluorescence microscopy using an FITC filter. The cells were analysed by Leica Application Suite version 4.4 (Leica Microsystems, Germany) (24). Experiments were performed independently six times.
The test detects chromosome breakage and loss by measuring the formation of micronuclei. These are small membrane bound fragments or whole chromosomes, which are unable to attach to the spindle at mitosis and appear as small bodies within the cell. Cells are treated with cytochalasin B which blocks cell division but not nuclear division, resulting in cells containing two or more nuclei. The proportion of cells that have undergone cell division and suffered chromosome breakage or loss, resulting in micronucleus formation can then be counted, giving a representation of the genotoxicity of the test item.
After 24 h of incubation with inosine pranobex, the medium was exchanged for fresh medium supplemented with cytochalasin B at a final concentration of 3 μg/mL. After 24 h of incubation, the cells were stained with acridine orange. For this purpose, cells were washed once with PBS and resuspended in acridine orange solution at a concentration of 50 μg/mL. The slide was observed under epifluorescence microscopy using an acridine orange filter. A total of 1,000 cells were analysed per sample. The results were analysed by calculating the binucleated micronucleated cells’ frequency as the number of binucleated cells containing one or more micronuclei per 1,000 binucleated cells. The cells were analysed by Leica Application Suite ver. 4.4 (24). Experiments were performed independently six times.
The Ames assay is based on the assumption that the mutagens lead to mutations in many genes. Some of these mutations cause the reversal of ability to synthesise histidine (reverse mutations). The his-
There are several different mutant strains of
• TA 1535 has a base-pair substitution resulting in a missense mutation in the gene-encoding of the first enzyme in the histidine biosynthesis pathway. A -GGG-(proline) substitutes for a -GAG- (leucine) in the wild-type organism.
• TA 100 contains the same mutation identified in TA 1535. Its mutagenic specificity is like that of the base-pair substitutions mutagen tester strain.
• TA 98 has mutagenic specificity similar to that of the frameshift mutagen tester strain.
• TA 102 has an ochre mutation (-TAA-), which means that it has a non-sense mutation, in place of the -CAA- present in the wild-type organism. Unlike the other his-strains, this strain has an A: T base pair at the site of reversions.
• TA 97 contains an added cytosine, resulting in a run of six cytosines at the mutated site in the histidine D gene. Its mutagenic specificity is like that of the frameshift mutagen tester strain.
Between 16 and 18 h prior to the experiment, nutrient broths were transferred to the vials of lyophilised
The final concentrations of inosine pranobex (0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 μg/mL) were obtained by dilution in sterile distilled water. The samples to be tested were sterilised using a 0.22 μm membrane filter. The reaction mixture was prepared according to the manufacturer’s instructions as follows: 43.24 mL (A) + 9.5 mL (B) + 4.76 mL (C) + 2.38 mL (D) + 0.12 mL (E) where A is Davis-Mingioli salts (concentrate), B is D-glucose, C is bromocresol purple, D is D-biotin, and E is L-histidine.
A volume of 2.5 mL of reaction mixture was aseptically dispensed to each sterile tube. Next 17.5 mL of the sterile filtered inosine pranobex (at concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 μg/mL) was added. The
Positive control substances used in Ames assay
Strain | Substance |
---|---|
TA97a | 9AA (9- aminoacridine) |
TA98 | 2-NF (2-nitrofluorene) |
TA100 | NaN3 (sodium azide) |
TA102 | Cumene hydroperoxide |
TA1535 | NaN3 (sodium azide) |
At concentrations from 0.1 to 500 μg/mL inosine pranobex did not induce a significant dose-related increase in DNA damage in either cell line (Table 2, Figs 1a and b). Table 2 and Figs 2a and b show that there was a concentration-dependent increase with statistical significance in the number of comets in cells incubated with inosine pranobex at concentrations of 1,000 μg/mL.
The effect of inosine pranobex on comet formation
Concentration of inosine | Percentage tail DNA | |
---|---|---|
pranobex (μg/mL) | BALB/ 3T3 clone A31 cells | HepG2 cells |
0 | 1 | 1 |
0.1 | 1 | 1 |
0.5 | 1 | 2 |
1 | 1 | 1 |
5 | 1 | 1 |
10 | 2 ± 0.1 | 1 |
50 | 2 ± 0.1 | 2 ± 0.1 |
100 | 2 ± 0.1 | 3 ± 0.1 |
500 | 3 ± 0.2 | 2 ± 0.1 |
1,000 | 4 ± 0.2* | 5 ± 0.3* |
* P < 0.05, compared with control
At concentrations from 0.1 to 500 μg/mL, inosine pranobex did not induce a significant dose-related increase in the number of micronuclei in either cell line (Table 3). Table 3 and Figs 3 and 4 show that there was a concentration-dependent increase with statistical significance in the number of micronuclei in cells incubated with inosine pranobex at concentrations of 1,000 μg/mL.
The effect of Inosine pranobex on number of cells with micronuclei
Concentration of Inosine | BNMN‰ | |
---|---|---|
pranobex (μg/mL) | BALB/3T3 clone A31 cells | HepG2 cells |
0 | 0 | 1 |
0.1 | 1 | 0 |
0.5 | 2 ± 0.1 | 3 ± 0.1 |
1 | 2 ± 0.1 | 2 ± 0.1 |
5 | 2 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 0.2 |
10 | 3 ± 0.2 | 3 ± 0.2 |
50 | 4 ± 0.2 | 2 ± 0.1 |
100 | 4 ± 0.3 | 4 ± 0.2 |
500 | 5 ± 0.3 | 6 ± 0.3 |
1,000 | 6 ± 0.4* | 10 ± 0.9* |
BNMN‰ – binucleated micronucleated cells containing one or more micronuclei per 1,000 binucleated cells.
* P < 0.05, compared with control
Inosine pranobex did not induce a dose-related increase in the number of revertant (His+) colonies in any of the five tester strains (TA1535, TA98, TA100, TA 97, and 102) in the absence or presence of S9-metabolic activation. All bacterial strains showed negative responses over the entire dose range (Table 4).
Bacterial reverse mutation results (mean number of revertant colonies per plate) in
Concentration of inosine pranobex ( μg/mL) | TA97a | TA98 | TA100 | TA102 | TA1535 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
-S9 | +S9 | -S9 | +S9 | -S9 | +S9 | -S9 | +S9 | -S9 | +S9 | |
0.1 | 4 ± 0.1 | 9 ± 0.7* | 6 ± 0.1* | 7 ± 0.3* | 12 ± 1* | 15 ± 1* | 11 ± 1* | 11 ± 1* | 10 ± 0.7* | 11 ± 1* |
0.5 | 2 ± 0.1 | 5 ± 0.3 | 2 ± 0.1 | 3 ± 0.1 | 12 ± 1* | 12 ± 1* | 12 ± 1* | 12 ± 1* | 12 ± 1* | 12 ± 1* |
1 | 3 ± 0.2 | 4 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 0.2 | 6 ± 0.3* | 2 ± 0.1 | 5 ± 0.1* | 3 ± 0.1 | 3 ± 0.1 | 3 ± 0.1 | 6 ± 0.2* |
5 | 5 ± 0.3 | 7 ± 0.3* | 9 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.4* | 4 ± 0.1 | 6 ± 0.12* | 4 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 0.1 |
10 | 6 ± 0.4 | 6 ± 0.3 | 6 ± 0.3* | 7 ± 0.3* | 8 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.3* | 8 ± 0.4* | 9 ± 0.5* | 8 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.4* |
50 | 5 ± 0.3 | 8 ± 0.5* | 6 ± 0.4* | 7 ± 0.2* | 11 ± 1* | 11 ± 1* | 9 ± 0.6* | 9 ± 0.4* | 11 ± 0.9* | 12 ± 1* |
100 | 6 ± 0.4 | 6 ± 0.3 | 7 ± 0.3* | 7 ± 0.3* | 7 ± 0.4* | 7 ± 0.4* | 9 ± 0.7* | 9 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.6* |
500 | 9 ± 0.6 | 9 ± 0.4* | 11 ± 0.8* | 11 ± 0.8* | 11 ± 1* | 11 ± 1* | 10 ± 1* | 10 ± 0.6* | 9 ± 0.6* | 10 ± 0.8* |
1,000 | 8 ± 0.7* | 8 ± 0.5* | 5 ± 0.2* | 7 ± 0.4* | 9 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.3* | 9 ± 0.4* | 9 ± 0.5* | 9 ± 0.7* | 9 ± 0.6* |
9AA | 43 | 43 | ||||||||
2-NF | 69 | 69 | ||||||||
NaN3 | 85 | 85 | ||||||||
Cumene | 84 | 84 | ||||||||
hydroperoxide | ||||||||||
NaN3 | 85 | 85 |
9AA – 9- aminoacridine, 2-NF – 2-nitrofluorene, NaN3 – sodium azide
* P < 0.05 compared with control
Based on the results of the comet assay, micronucleus assay, and Ames test it has been concluded that inosine pranobex is neither genotoxic nor mutagenic.
Inosine pranobex is a synthetic active substance, consisting of inosine and p-acetamidobenzoate salt of N, N-dimethylamino-2-propanol (3). The oral dose in mucocutaneous
To establish the safety of a veterinary medicinal product, a number of toxicological studies are recommended, including investigation of any possible risk from genotoxic activity. Many substances have a genotoxic mode of action and it is wise to regard any under investigation as potential genotoxicants. In addition, substances causing reproductive and/or developmental toxicity may have a mode of action that involves genotoxic mechanisms. Sensitive tools for high-throughput toxicity screening are cultures of human cell lines, which can reduce the need for toxicological testing in animals (14). The human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells have been well described (21) and extensively used as an
Registration of veterinary medicinal products requires assessment of their genotoxic features. Genotoxicity investigations are an integral part of regulatory toxicity evaluation in most European countries. Because there is no possibility of detecting all relevant genotoxic end-points in one single test a battery of tests for genotoxicity conducted in
A sensitive and simple method for detecting DNA damage in individual cells is the comet assay or single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay. The comet assay is based upon the movement of labile nuclear DNA through an agarose gel when an electrical field is applied. The undamaged DNA retains a highly organised association with proteins in the nucleus, however, when the DNA is damaged, this organisation is disrupted. The SCGE assay’s advantages over other genotoxicity tests are its requirement for small numbers of cells per sample, proven sensitivity for detecting low levels of DNA damage, flexibility, low costs, simplicity of application, and the short time needed to complete the test (25).
The micronucleus assay is an important part of genotoxicity testing. Micronucleus formation is evidence of genotoxicity. Micronuclei are chromatin-containing bodies that represent fragments or whole chromosomes that were not incorporated into a daughter cell nucleus at the end of mitosis. The aim of the assay is detection of substances which can induce chromosome damage causing micronuclei formation in interphase cells. This test is an alternative method to the
The identification of substances able to induce mutations is the most important in safety assessment, since mutagenic substances can potentially damage the germ line, lead to mutations in future generations, and also cause cancer. Gene mutations can be measured easily in bacteria. The Ames test, performed with the use of
The Ames test typically uses TA 98, TA 100, TA 1535, TA 102, and TA 97 strains of
In the available literature there are no results of any research on the impact of inosine pranobex on genotoxicity and mutagenicity. In our study, inosine pranobex did not induce a significant dose-related increase in the number of comets or micronuclei in HepG2 or BALB/3T3 clone A1 cells. Moreover, based on the results of Ames tests, it has been concluded that inosine pranobex is not mutagenic in the