| Almitrine |
Chemoreceptor stimulant |
A piperazine derivative that increases the slope of respira- tory response to carbon dioxide through its long-lasting stimula- tion of ventilation [18]. |
Reversed fentanyl induced respiratory depression [19] Its marketing license was withdrawn in 2013 by the European Medicines Agency due to its association with potentially serious and long-lasting peripheral neuropathy [20] |
| Aminophylline |
Phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzyme inhibitor |
Inhibits PDE-3 and PDE-4 and results in bronchodilation [8] |
Shortened the time to spontaneous ventilation from propofol and remifentanil anesthesia in post-operative patients [21] |
| Buspirone |
5-HT agonist |
High affinity for serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors [8] |
No effect on morphine-induced respiratory depression in healthy volunteers [22] |
| CX717 |
Ampakine |
Stimulates respiration through its action at AMPA receptors [23] |
Prevented alfentanil induced respiratory depression without affecting analgesia, albeit an increase in sedation [24] |
| Doxapram |
Chemoreceptor stimu- lant |
stimulates respiration through its action at K2P channels at type 1 glomus cells of the carotid bodies [25] |
Reversed opioids induced respiratory depression as well as shortening of time to spontaneous ventilation after propofol and remifentanil anesthesia [26, 27, 28] Caused an increase in blood pressure [29] and side effects such as anxiety, panic attack and QTc prolongation [30, 31, 32] |
| Esketamine |
NMDA receptor antago- nist |
Nonselective, noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist [8] |
Reversed alfentanil induced respiratory depression [33] |
| GAL021 |
Calcium-activated po- tassium (BKCa) channel blocker |
Inhibits BKCa channels primar- ily working through the carotid body [34] |
Reversed alfentanil induced respiratory depression [35,36] |
