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Women’s economic rights in developing countries and the gender gap in migration to Germany

Eric Neumayer
Eric Neumayer
 and 
Thomas Plümper
Thomas Plümper
   | Oct 13, 2021
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Published Online: Oct 13, 2021
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Accepted: Aug 10, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0013
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© 2021 Eric Neumayer et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Robustness tests: allowing for non-linear effects

M9 M10 M11 M12
(Women’s share of migrants)t−1 0.765*** (0.034) 0.435*** (0.074) 0.778*** (0.034) 0.412*** (0.071)
Women’s economic rights 0.197*** (0.048) 0.357*** (0.082) 0.070*** (0.016) 0.085** (0.043)
Women’s economic rights sq. −0.001*** (0.000) −0.003*** (0.001)
Per capita income 0.079 (0.049) −0.529 (0.565) 0.270** (0.112) 0.326 (0.862)
Per capita income squared −0.005** (0.002) −0.021 (0.016)
Growth in per capita income 0.051 (0.033) 0.021 (0.031) 0.055 (0.036) 0.012 (0.034)
Democracy (polity2) 0.016 (0.054) 0.114 (0.229) 0.010 (0.055) 0.076 (0.201)
Major political violence dummy −0.641 (1.139) −1.657 (3.697) −0.377 (1.061) −0.555 (3.740)
Distance to Germany (ln) 1.635*** (0.606) 1.762*** (0.596)
Visa requirement dummy 0.991* (0.591) 1.372** (0.661)
Country effects Random Fixed Random Fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes
Observations 825 825 825 825
Number of countries 112 112 112 112
R2 0.842 0.839
Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) 1.334 (0.1822) 1.387 (0.166)

Robustness tests: economic versus political rights

M5 Civil society participation M6 Civil society participation M7 Political participation M8 Political participation
Women’s political rights 2.668 (2.117) 6.747 (6.207) 1.834 (1.883) −0.025 (5.835)
(Women’s share of migrants)t−1 0.778*** (0.032) 0.426*** (0.077) 0.778*** (0.033) 0.435*** (0.075)
Women’s economic rights 0.073*** (0.017) 0.083* (0.045) 0.076*** (0.016) 0.089** (0.044)
Per capita income 0.064 (0.049) −0.482 (0.589) 0.073 (0.049) −0.410 (0.556)
Growth in per capita income 0.055 (0.034) 0.021 (0.033) 0.050 (0.033) 0.022 (0.032)
Democracy (polity2) −0.030 (0.056) 0.046 (0.229) 0.002 (0.053) 0.121 (0.224)
Major political violence dummy −0.280 (1.088) −1.172 (3.817) −0.390 (1.137) −1.319 (3.776)
Distance to Germany (ln) 1.677*** (0.544) 1.575*** (0.566)
Visa requirement dummy 1.115* (0.610) 1.301** (0.607)
Country effects Random Fixed Random Fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes
Observations 824 824 824 824
Number of countries 111 111 111 111
R2 0.840 0.839
Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) 1.486 (0.137) 1.429 (0.153)

Women’s economic rights and the female share of migrants from developing coming to Germany

M1 M2
(Women's share of migrants)t−1 0.771*** (0.034) 0.433*** (0.075)
Women's economic rights 0.079*** (0.016) 0.089** (0.045)
Per capita income 0.074 (0.048) −0.414 (0.554)
Growth in per capita income 0.053 (0.034) 0.021 (0.032)
Democracy (polity2) 0.017 (0.054) 0.105 (0.216)
Major political violence dummy variable −0.525 (1.105) −1.397 (3.768)
Distance to Germany (ln) 1.687*** (0.588)
Visa requirement dummy variable 1.237** (0.618)
Country effects Random Fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes
Observations 825 825
Number of countries 112 112
R2 0.839
Zero autocorrelation in first-differenced Errors test z-statistic (p-value) 1.433 (0.152)

j.izajodm-2021-0013.tabapp.001

#Migrants %Women
Mali 5,409 7.19
Gambia 18,747 8.01
Guinea-Bissau 2,568 10.51
Niger 1,419 12.12
Algeria 31,840 12.50
Chad 1,044 12.74
Sudan 7,998 14.08
Guinea 16,317 14.17
Mauritania 1,101 15.44
Senegal 7,204 16.21
Liberia 1,096 16.51
Bangladesh 16,187 17.61
Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) 2,471 17.77
Benin 2,782 19.55
Pakistan 81,191 19.73
Sierra Leone 3,751 22.18
Côte D’Ivoire 6,679 24.82
Eritrea 66,847 26.67
Tunisia 31,364 28.68
Egypt 34,608 29.44
Afghanistan 258,268 29.61
Libya 23,799 30.00
India 167,675 32.68
Lebanon 24,276 33.01
Morocco 62,907 33.26
Yemen 6,304 34.57
Tajikistan 6,535 34.80
Ghana 25,805 35.03
Syria 696,516 37.14
Iraq 232,365 38.16
Albania 125,266 38.51
Ethiopia 15,830 38.75
Nigeria 52,282 38.80
Iran 98,936 38.80
Congo 1,201 39.80
Turkey (Ottoman Empire) 230,513 39.87
Togo 5,117 40.18
Jordan 11,184 40.29
Jamaica 1,005 41.00
Georgia 37,604 41.20
Serbia 98,872 41.61
Myanmar (Burma) 1,503 41.78
Cameroon 20,560 42.31
Tanzania 2,081 42.62
Sri Lanka 10,629 42.72
Congo, Dem. Rep. 3,459 43.60
Azerbaijan 20,097 43.96
Rwanda 1,035 44.73
Angola 3,295 44.80
Malaysia 6,382 45.03
North Macedonia 99,909 45.27
Guatemala 1,134 46.47
Argentina 8,322 46.97
Mexico 32,026 47.13
Nepal 8,638 48.67
Uzbekistan 5,377 49.01
Costa Rica 2,182 49.36
Vietnam 47,945 49.49
Moldova 19,666 50.34
Uganda 2,226 50.36
Armenia 23,275 50.46
South Africa 7,022 50.66
China 177,068 50.77
Ecuador 6,135 52.09
Indonesia 20,770 52.97
El Salvador 1,278 52.97
Venezuela 6,209 53.81
Cuba 6,174 54.08
Singapore 4,012 54.29
Brazil 62,703 54.44
Honduras 1,226 54.65
Turkmenistan 2,439 55.35
Colombia 21,714 56.33
Bolivia 2,527 56.95
Paraguay 1,737 58.09
Peru 7,980 60.11
Zimbabwe 2,287 60.25
Russia 167,153 60.35
Mongolia 6,154 60.61
Kazakhstan 16,423 60.66
Ukraine 86,397 60.80
Dominican Republic 5,212 62.28
Belarus 14,306 63.88
Kyrgyz Republic 5,508 63.98
Philippines 18,539 66.61
Kenya 9,281 68.24
Thailand 27,462 76.21
Madagascar 2,407 81.14

j.izajodm-2021-0013.tabapp.003

Variable Obs Mean SD Min Max
Share of women among migrant pop. 825 44.70 15.74 3.91 84.55
(Share of women among migrant pop.)t−1 825 45.17 15.63 3.91 84.55
Women’s economic rights (OECD) 825 50.68 21.40 1.07 94.83
Per capita income 825 3.97 6.59 −62.08 123.14
Growth in per capita income 825 3.12 5.53 −9 10
Democracy (polity2) 825 0.12 0.33 0 1
Major political violence dummy variable 825 58.76 15.85 16.16 93.09
Distance to Germany (ln) 825 8.63 0.56 7.06 9.69
Visa requirement dummy variable 825 0.84 0.37 0 1
Women’s economic rights (World Bank) 1,066 67.02 16.59 23.13 96.88
Women’s civil society participation 824 0.71 0.16 0.06 0.95
Women’s political participation 824 0.87 0.16 0.23 1

Robustness tests: employing an alternative measure of women’s rights

M3 World Bank measure M4 World Bank measure
(Women’s share of migrants)t−1 0.835*** (0.033) 0.705*** (0.049)
Women’s economic rights 0.064*** (0.021) 0.057** (0.023)
Per capita income 0.073*** (0.022) 0.040 (0.025)
Growth in per capita income 0.034 (0.025) 0.023 (0.022)
Democracy (polity2) −0.013 (0.050) 0.024 (0.059)
Major political violence dummy variable −0.324 (0.924) −0.731 (1.176)
Distance to Germany (ln) 1.549*** (0.449) 3.918** (1.748)
Visa requirement dummy variable 0.861* (0.508) 3.226*** (0.807)
Country/subregional effects Random Subregional fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes
Observations 1,066 1,066
Number of countries 122 122
R2 0.788 0.806

j.izajodm-2021-0013.tabapp.002

Going places
Can a woman apply for a passport in the same way as a man?
Can a woman legally travel outside the country in the same way as a man?
Can a woman legally travel outside her home in the same way as a man?
Can a woman legally choose where to live in the same way as a man?
Starting a job
Can a woman get a job or pursue a trade or profession in the same way as a man?
Does the law mandate non-discrimination based on gender in employment?
Is there legislation on sexual harassment in employment?
Are there criminal penalties or civil remedies for sexual harassment in employment?
Getting paid
Does the law mandate equal remuneration for work of equal value?
Can women work the same night hours as men?
Can women work in jobs deemed hazardous, arduous, or morally inappropriate in the same way as men?
Are women able to work in the same industries as men?
Getting married
Is a married woman not legally required to obey her husband?
Can a woman be head of household or head of the family in the same way as a man?
Is there domestic violence legislation?
Can a woman obtain a judgment of divorce in the same way as a man?
Do women have the same rights to remarry as men?
Having children
Is there paid leave of at least 14 weeks available to women?
Does the government pay 100% of maternity leave benefits, or parental leave benefits (where maternity leave is unavailable)?
Is there paid paternity leave?
Is there paid parental leave?
Is dismissal of pregnant workers prohibited?
Running a business
Can a woman legally sign a contract in the same way as a man?
Can a woman legally register a business in the same way as a man?
Can a woman legally open a bank account in the same way as a man?
Does the law prohibit discrimination by creditors based on sex or gender?
Managing assets
Do men and married women have equal ownership rights to property?
Do sons and daughters have equal rights to inherit assets from their parents?
Do female and male surviving spouses have equal rights to inherit assets?
Does the law grant spouses equal administrative authority over assets during the marriage?
Does the law provide for the valuation of nonmonetary contributions?
Getting a pension
Are the ages at which men and women can retire with full pension benefits equal?
Are the ages at which men and women can retire with partial pension benefits equal?
Is the mandatory retirement age for men and women equal?
Does the law establish explicit pension care credits for periods of childcare?

Robustness tests: restrictions on the minimum size of migrant population

Minimum number restriction M13 >250 M14 >250 M15 >500 M16 >500
(Women’s share of migrants)t−1 0.934*** (0.014) 0.753*** (0.104) 0.938*** (0.015) 0.675*** (0.095)
Women’s economic rights 0.052*** (0.011) 0.077** (0.033) 0.053*** (0.013) 0.072** (0.031)
Per capita income −0.001 (0.020) 0.315 (0.422) −0.026 (0.041) 1.046** (0.463)
Growth in per capita income 0.034** (0.013) 0.015 (0.031) 0.030** (0.012) −0.010 (0.026)
Democracy (polity2) 0.003 (0.029) 0.262 (0.169) 0.005 (0.030) 0.381** (0.172)
Major political violence dummy 0.644 (0.486) −2.308 (2.843) 0.498 (0.511) −0.584 (2.276)
Distance to Germany (ln) 0.642*** (0.215) 0.461* (0.254)
Visa requirement dummy −0.066 (0.369) −0.476 (0.607)
Country effects Random Fixed Random Fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes
Observations 538 538 445 445
Number of countries 78 78 69 69
R2 0.938 0.942
Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) −0.984 (0.325) −2.22 (0.026)

Robustness tests: specifying explanatory variables as predetermined/endogenous and restricting maximum length of lags used as instruments

Explanatory variables specified as: maximum lag length of explanatory variables as instruments: maximum lag length of dependent variable as instruments M17 pred.T–1T–2 M18 end.T–2T–2 M19 pred.2T–2 M20 end.2T–2 M21 pred.22 M22 end.22
(Women’s share of migrants)t−1 0.463*** (0.058) 0.477*** (0.058) 0.484*** (0.068) 0.519*** (0.067) 0.508*** (0.067) 0.541*** (0.065)
Women’s economic rights 0.106*** (0.033) 0.121*** (0.035) 0.130*** (0.042) 0.159*** (0.042) 0.118*** (0.043) 0.144*** (0.042)
Per capita income 0.176 (0.108) 0.140 (0.090) 0.125 (0.093) 0.065 (0.081) 0.125 (0.093) 0.072 (0.081)
Growth in per capita income 0.021 (0.039) 0.011 (0.036) 0.019 (0.041) 0.013 (0.047) 0.020 (0.040) 0.011 (0.046)
Democracy (polity2) 0.252 (0.162) 0.232 (0.176) 0.214 (0.216) 0.140 (0.233) 0.243 (0.231) 0.180 (0.250)
Major political violence dummy −2.435 (3.285) 0.352 (3.164) −3.386 (3.186) 1.050 (3.188) −3.506 (3.133) 0.752 (3.033)
Country effects Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed Fixed
Year fixed effects Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Observations 825 825 825 825 825 825
Number of countries 112 112 112 112 112 112
Zero autocorrelation in first-diff. Errors test z-statistic (p-value) −0.984 (0.325) −0.984 (0.325) −0.984 (0.325) −0.984 (0.325) −2.22 (0.026) −2.22 (0.026)
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