Open Access

A Single-Center Evaluation of Environmental Emissions from ENDS and Combustible Cigarettes

John W. Caraway
John W. Caraway
, 
Tao Jin
Tao Jin
, 
Eckhardt Schmidt
Eckhardt Schmidt
 and 
Paul R. Nelson
Paul R. Nelson
   | Apr 20, 2021
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Published Online: Apr 20, 2021
Page range: 3 - 24
Received: Aug 24, 2020
Accepted: Dec 30, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/cttr-2021-0002
Keywords
© 2021 John W. Caraway et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Figure A1

Schematic of environmental test chamber.
Schematic of environmental test chamber.

Figure A2

Typical figure of real-time measurement for CO, CO2, TVOCs, temperature, and relative humidity.
Typical figure of real-time measurement for CO, CO2, TVOCs, temperature, and relative humidity.

Statistical comparison (p-values) of blank-corrected TWA concentration (TWABC) between test and reference productsa. p-Values are from 2-sample 2-tailed t-test; bold type denotes significant values (p < 0.05).

Constituent Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotine b) vs Marlboro Gold Pack Box Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotine b) vs Marlboro Gold Pack Box Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotine b) vs Newport Box Market-sample ENDS vs Marlboro Gold Pack Box Market-sample ENDS vs Newport Box
CO 0.023 0.025 < 0.001 0.023 < 0.001
TVOC 0.012 0.011 < 0.001 0.012 < 0.001
Acetaldehyde < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Ammonia 0.012 0.010 0.003 0.009 0.003
Benzene 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001
Ethylbenzene 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
FPM < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Formaldehyde < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Glycerol 0.037 0.088 0.020 0.128 0.159
Hydroquinone < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Nicotine < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Phenol 0.003 0.003 < 0.001 0.003 < 0.001
Propylene glycol 0.035 0.029 0.017 0.336 0.647
Pyridine 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
Pyrrole 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
RSP < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Solanesol < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
Styrene 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
Toluene 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
UVPM < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001
m+p-Xylene 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
m+p-Cresol < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001
o-Cresol 0.002 0.002 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001
o-Xylene < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001

Summary of mass of e-liquid (g) used by cohort.

Cohort No. n Mean Median SD Minimum Maximum
3 Vuse Menthol 20 0.043 0.0405 0.027 0.0012 0.0941
4 Vuse Original 20 0.032 0.0336 0.018 0.0037 0.0700
5 Vuse Original Silver 20 0.023 0.0234 0.019 0.0009 0.0629

Secondhand vapor/secondhand smoke constituents measured during environmental chamber test sessions.

SHV/SHS constituents Lower limit of quantification
Acetaldehyde 2.0 μg/m3
Ammonia (NH3) 67.0 μg/m3
Benzene 0.4 μg/m3
Carbon monoxide (CO) 0.1 mg/m3
Cresol 0.1 μg/m3
Ethylbenzene 0.1 μg/m3
Fluorescent particulate matter (FPM) 1.0 μg/m3
Formaldehyde 2.0 μg/m3
Glycerol 8.3 μg/m3
Hydroquinone 0.8 μg/m3
Nicotine 0.2 μg/m3
Phenol 0.4 μg/m3
Propylene glycol 2.0 μg/m3
Pyridine 0.1 μg/m3
Pyrrole 0.1 μg/m3
Respirable suspended particles (RSP) (PMR2.5) 2.0 μg/m3
Solanesol 0.3 μg/m3
Styrene 0.1 μg/m3
Toluene 0.4 μg/m3
Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) 11.5 μg/m3
Ultraviolet particulate matter (UVPM) 1.0 μg/m3
Xylene 0.1 μg/m3

Summary of uncorrected TWA concentrations from product smoking/vaping and blank runs (n = 5). Mean (SD) values are presented. Background-corrected CO and TVOC were used in this table.

Constituent (Units) Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6
Marlboro Gold Pack Box Newport Box Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotinea) Market-sample ENDS
Smoking/Vaping Run
CO (μg/L) 6.86 (4.41) 9.41 (0.97) −0.31 (0.16) 0.02 (0.05) −0.35 (0.21) −0.04 (0.24)
TVOC (μg/m3) 1063.22 (522.06) 1072.51 (247.13) 25.59 (37.19) 23.48 (33.14) 155.28 (100.42) 138.96 (99.47)
Benzene (μg/m3) 34.43 (9.19) 35.63 (3.18) 1.60 (0.05) 1.62 (0.04) 1.64 (0.03) 1.64 (0.03)
Ethylbenzene (μg/m3) 9.65 (2.94) 9.71 (0.88) 0.33 (0.02) 0.45 (0.17) 0.33 (0.01) 0.34 (0.03)
Acetaldehyde (μg/m3) 260.60 (18.65) 261.18 (7.58) 7.53 (5.60) 5.66 (0.92) 2.32 (0.15) 4.00 (1.23)
FPM (μg/m3) 41.45 (4.02) 39.37 (2.84) 1.22 (0.20) 1.20 (0.19) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00)
Glycerol (μg/m3) 28.87 (4.26) 33.87 (6.08) 148.94 (65.87) 129.82 (70.88) 68.58 (36.90) 72.69 (47.86)
Hydroquinone (μg/m3) 5.33 (0.38) 5.90 (0.83) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00)
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) 136.14 (20.78) 129.04 (13.17) 12.01 (2.90) 12.76 (1.85) 12.32 (1.63) 14.81 (1.96)
m+p-Cresol (μg/m3) 6.65 (1.76) 6.39 (0.54) 0.32 (0.01) 0.63 (0.68) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
m+p-Xylene (μg/m3) 30.28 (9.74) 28.97 (2.53) 0.85 (0.32) 1.82 (1.02) 0.55 (0.23) 0.75 (0.16)
Ammonia (μg/m3) 449.74 (189.97) 384.53 (109.13) 69.71 (5.14) 85.95 (12.76) 72.37 (8.23) 71.42 (6.73)
Nicotine (μg/m3) 159.91 (22.81) 154.20 (21.27) 19.89 (10.38) 11.90 (1.89) 1.93 (1.04) 1.60 (0.81)
o-Cresol (μg/m3) 3.22 (0.92) 3.20 (0.30) 0.32 (0.01) 0.53 (0.29) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
o-Xylene (μg/m3) 4.92 (1.29) 5.01 (0.37) 0.37 (0.06) 0.72 (0.41) 0.35 (0.04) 0.38 (0.05)
Propylene glycol (μg/m3) 241.67 (100.01) 194.54 (29.18) 1003.61 (438.91) 146.86 (55.63) 156.87 (80.86) 231.21 (166.57)
Phenol (μg/m3) 24.51 (7.33) 23.64 (2.92) 2.44 (0.11) 2.55 (0.21) 2.46 (0.04) 2.46 (0.04)
Pyridine (μg/m3) 34.20 (10.99) 32.67 (3.84) 0.32 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33(0.01)
Pyrrole (μg/m3) 34.24 (10.86) 32.08 (2.81) 0.32 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33(0.01)
RSP (μg/m3) 1611.17 (227.45) 1548.91 (170.05) 111.13 (91.91) 53.15 (19.54) 54.92 (20.23) 45.22 (22.32)
Solanesol (μg/m3) 55.00 (12.85) 63.58 (11.40) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00)
Styrene (μg/m3) 13.08 (4.07) 14.05 (1.03) 0.62 (0.26) 0.58 (0.22) 0.54 (0.15) 0.59 (0.10)
Toluene (μg/m3) 64.09 (18.26) 71.93 (9.17) 3.04 (1.27) 3.98 (2.08) 1.68 (0.07) 2.03(0.46)
UVPM (μg/m3) 105.11 (13.62) 103.55 (10.81) 1.07 (0.17) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00)
Blank Run
CO (μg/L) −0.13 (0.39) 0.31 (0.35) −0.23 (0.17) 0.06 (0.10) −0.43 (0.09) 0.01 (0.09)
TVOC (μg/m3) 26.04 (32.38) 32.46 (13.22) 1.00 (2.23) 6.24 (13.70) 141.13 (100.09) 86.45 (45.43)
Benzene (μg/m3) 1.64 (0.04) 1.63 (0.04) 1.61 (0.03) 1.60 (0.04) 1.64 (0.03) 1.64 (0.03)
Ethylbenzene (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.43 (0.17) 0.47 (0.19) 0.35 (0.06) 0.51 (0.36)
Acetaldehyde (μg/m3) 7.14 (5.09) 6.05 (2.03) 5.33 (3.64) 5.72 (3.59) 2.51 (0.79) 4.34 (1.52)
FPM (μg/m3) 1.08 (0.08) 1.06 (0.07) 1.13 (0.18) 1.13 (0.18) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00)
Glycerol (μg/m3) 29.99 (4.18) 30.94 (3.49) 36.18 (3.60) 33.63 (2.21) 32.71 (0.57) 32.77 (0.63)
Hydroquinone (μg/m3) 0.81 (0.02) 0.76 (0.09) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00) 0.83 (0.00)
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) 8.71 (1.08) 11.00 (1.64) 11.35 (2.11) 11.43 (1.29) 10.90 (1.02) 12.01 (2.14)
m+p-Cresol (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
m+p-Xylene (μg/m3) 0.57 (0.33) 0.51 (0.42) 1.42 (1.22) 1.86 (1.16) 0.72 (0.50) 0.96 (0.58)
Ammonia (μg/m3) 63.60 (3.72) 76.53 (10.85) 71.24 (6.63) 69.87 (3.86) 72.51 (10.90) 90.53 (22.83)
Nicotine (μg/m3) 5.62 (2.90) 4.62 (2.77) 2.76 (0.65) 2.32 (0.74) 0.57 (0.25) 0.56 (0.29)
o-Cresol (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.68 (0.54) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.04) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
o-Xylene (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.51 (0.26) 0.70 (0.38) 0.38 (0.12) 0.42 (0.12)
Propylene glycol (μg/m3) 17.50 (14.73) 21.97 (18.30) 56.72 (30.84) 52.44 (26.96) 84.99 (80.56) 95.90 (108.26)
Phenol (μg/m3) 3.91 (3.42) 2.49 (0.45) 2.78 (0.54) 2.39 (0.06) 2.45 (0.04) 2.46 (0.05)
Pyridine (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
Pyrrole (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.32 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01)
RSP (μg/m3) 44.85 (23.48) 25.49 (4.60) 43.71 (21.40) 31.18 (11.53) 45.34 (14.87) 38.16 (8.43)
Solanesol (μg/m3) 0.40 (0.01) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00) 0.40 (0.00)
Styrene (μg/m3) 0.33 (0.01) 0.33 (0.01) 0.65 (0.30) 0.62 (0.24) 0.50 (0.05) 0.58 (0.12)
Toluene (μg/m3) 2.82 (1.06) 4.72 (1.23) 3.30 (1.10) 3.81 (2.26) 1.78 (0.24) 2.16 (0.53)
UVPM (μg/m3) 0.98 (0.02) 0.98 (0.01) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00) 1.00 (0.00)

Summary of blank-corrected TWA concentrations (TWABC) by cohort. (n = 5), mean (SD) values are presented, bold type denotes a significant difference between smoking/vaping and blank runs (uncorrected TWA concentrations; p< 0.05).

Constituent (Units) Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6
Marlboro Gold Pack Box Newport Menthol Box Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotinea) Market-sample ENDS
CO (μg/L)b 6.99 (4.41) 9.09 (0.97) −0.07 (0.16) −0.04 (0.05) 0.08 (0.21) −0.05 (0.24)
TVOC (μg/m3)b 1037.18 (522.06) 1040.06 (247.13) 24.59 (37.19) 17.25 (33.14) 14.14 (100.42) 52.51 (99.47)
Acetaldehyde (μg/m3) 253.46 (18.65) 255.13 (7.58) 2.20 (5.60) −0.06 (0.92) −0.19 (0.15) −0.34 (1.23)
Ammonia (μg/m3) 386.14 (189.97) 307.99 (109.13) −1.54 (5.14) 16.08 (12.76)c −0.14 (8.23) −19.11 (6.73)
Benzene (μg/m3) 32.79 (9.19) 34.00 (3.18) −0.02 (0.05) 0.02 (0.04) 0.01 (0.03) 0.00 (0.03)
Ethylbenzene (μg/m3) 9.32 (2.94) 9.39 (0.88) −0.10 (0.02) −0.01 (0.17) −0.02 (0.01) −0.16 (0.03)
FPM (μg/m3) 40.37 (4.02) 38.31 (2.84) 0.09 (0.20) 0.07 (0.19) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) 127.44 (20.78) 118.04 (13.17) 0.67 (2.90) 1.33 (1.85) 1.43 (1.63) 2.81 (1.96)
Glycerol (μg/m3) −1.11 (4.26) 2.93 (6.08) 112.77 (65.87) 96.19 (70.88) 35.87 (36.90) 39.92 (47.86)
Hydroquinone (μg/m3) 4.52 (0.38) 5.15 (0.83) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
Nicotine (μg/m3) 154.30 (22.81) 149.58 (21.27) 17.13 (10.38) 9.59 (1.89) 1.36 (1.04) 1.04 (0.81)
Phenol (μg/m3) 20.60 (7.33) 21.15 (2.92) −0.34 (0.11) 0.16 (0.21) 0.01 (0.04) 0.00 (0.04)
Propylene glycol (μg/m3) 224.17 (100.01) 172.57 (29.18) 946.89 (438.91) 94.42 (55.63) 71.88 (80.86) 135.31 (166.57)
Pyridine (μg/m3) 33.87 (10.99) 32.34 (3.84) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01)
Pyrrole (μg/m3) 33.91 (10.86) 31.76 (2.81) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01)
RSP (μg/m3) 1566.32 (227.45) 1523.42 (170.05) 67.42 (91.91) 21.96 (19.54) 9.58 (20.23) 7.06 (22.32)
Solanesol (μg/m3) 54.60 (12.85) 63.19 (11.40) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
Styrene (μg/m3) 12.75 (4.07) 13.72 (1.03) −0.03 (0.26) −0.03 (0.22) 0.05 (0.15) 0.01 (0.10)
Toluene (μg/m3) 61.27 (18.26) 67.21 (9.17) −0.27 (1.27) 0.17 (2.08) −0.11 (0.07) −0.13 (0.46)
UVPM (μg/m3) 104.12 (13.62) 102.57 (10.81) 0.07 (0.17) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00)
m+p-Xylene (μg/m3) 29.71 (9.74) 28.46 (2.53) −0.57 (0.32) −0.04 (1.02) −0.17 (0.23) −0.21 (0.16)
m+p-Cresol (μg/m3) 6.32 (1.76) 6.06 (0.54) 0.00 (0.01) 0.31 (0.68) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01)
o-Cresol (μg/m3) 2.89 (0.92) 2.52 (0.30) 0.00 (0.01) 0.20 (0.29) 0.00 (0.01) 0.00 (0.01)
o-Xylene (μg/m3) 4.59 (1.29) 4.68 (0.37) −0.15 (0.06) 0.02 (0.41) −0.03 (0.04) −0.05 (0.05)

Summary of mean (SD) emission factors for analytes (mg/cigarette or mg/10 min vaping) by cohort.

Constituent Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6
Marlboro Gold Pack Box (n = 5) Newport Menthol Box (n = 5) Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotine*) (n = 5) Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotine*) (n = 5) Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotine*) (n = 5) Market-sample ENDS (n = 5)
Acetaldehyde 1.921 (0.128) 1.937 (0.033) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Ammonia 2.925 (1.444) 2.336 (0.815) N/A 0.125 (0.100) N/A N/A
Benzene 0.249 (0.070) 0.258 (0.022) N/A N/A N/A N/A
CO 56.540 (31.549) 72.433 (7.131) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Ethylbenzene 0.071 (0.022) 0.071 (0.006) N/A N/A N/A N/A
FPM 0.306 (0.028) 0.291 (0.017) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Formaldehyde 0.966 (0.156) 0.896 (0.095) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Glycerol N/A N/A 0.872 (0.501) 0.752 (0.558) N/A N/A
Hydroquinone 0.034 (0.003) 0.039 (0.006) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Nicotine 1.170 (0.176) 1.136 (0.166) 0.133 (0.080) 0.075 (0.015) N/A 0.008 (0.006)
Phenol 0.156 (0.056) 0.160 (0.019) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Propylene glycol 1.701 (0.765) 1.308 (0.206) 7.326 (3.343) 0.736 (0.432) N/A N/A
Pyridine 0.257 (0.084) 0.245 (0.025) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Pyrrole 0.257 (0.083) 0.241 (0.018) N/A N/A N/A N/A
RSP 11.863 (1.612) 11.551 (1.088) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Solanesol 0.414 (0.095) 0.479 (0.082) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Styrene 0.097 (0.031) 0.104 (0.006) N/A N/A N/A N/A
TVOC 7.850 (3.853) 7.836 (1.800) N/A N/A N/A N/A
Toluene 0.465 (0.139) 0.510 (0.069) N/A N/A N/A N/A
UVPM 0.789 (0.097) 0.778 (0.069) N/A N/A N/A N/A
m+p-Xylene 0.225 (0.074) 0.216 (0.016) N/A N/A N/A N/A
m+p-Cresol 0.048 (0.013) 0.046 (0.003) N/A N/A N/A N/A
o-Cresol 0.022 (0.007) 0.019 (0.002) N/A N/A N/A N/A
o-Xylene 0.035 (0.010) 0.036 (0.002) N/A N/A N/A N/A

Summary of mean (SD) emission factors for analytes (μg/mg of e-liquid) for Vuse*.

Constituent Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5
Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotine**) (n = 5) Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotine**) (n = 5) Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotine**) (n = 5)
Acetaldehyde N/A N/A N/A
Ammonia N/A 3.912 (2.786) N/A
Benzene N/A N/A N/A
CO N/A N/A N/A
Ethylbenzene N/A N/A N/A
FPM N/A N/A N/A
Formaldehyde N/A N/A N/A
Glycerol 19.528 (4.981) 22.395 (14.435) N/A
Hydroquinone N/A N/A N/A
Nicotine 2.965 (0.594) 2.413 (0.443) N/A
Phenol N/A N/A N/A
Propylene glycol 170.986 (10.553) 22.447 (12.862) N/A
Pyridine N/A N/A N/A
Pyrrole N/A N/A N/A
RSP N/A N/A N/A
Solanesol N/A N/A N/A
Styrene N/A N/A N/A
TVOC N/A N/A N/A
Toluene N/A N/A N/A
UVPM N/A N/A N/A
m+p-Xylene N/A N/A N/A
m+p-Cresol N/A N/A N/A
o-Cresol N/A N/A N/A
o-Xylene N/A N/A N/A

Statistical comparison (p-values) of uncorrected TWA concentration between product smoking/vaping and blank runs. p-Values are from 2-sample 2-tailed t-test. Bold typedenotes a significant difference between smoking/vaping and blank runs (uncorrected TWA concentrations; p < 0.05).

Constituent (Units) Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6
Marlboro Gold Pack Box Newport Box Vuse Menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (29 mg nicotinea) Vuse Non-menthol (14 mg nicotinea) Market-sample ENDS
CO (μg/L)b 0.024 < 0.001 0.497 0.402 0.476 0.679
TVOC (μg/m3)b 0.011 < 0.001 0.214 0.314 0.829 0.314
Benzene (μg/m3) 0.001 < 0.001 0.491 0.461 0.739 0.881
Ethylbenzene (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.265 0.916 0.513 0.373
Acetaldehyde (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.483 0.974 0.616 0.707
FPM (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.488 0.566 0.876 0.384
Glycerol (μg/m3) 0.687 0.377 0.019 0.038 0.095 0.136
Hydroquinone (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.89 0.904 0.739 0.523
Formaldehyde (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.688 0.223 0.136 0.063
m+p-Cresol (μg/m3) 0.001 < 0.001 0.491 0.367 0.739 0.881
m+p-Xylene (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.363 0.959 0.517 0.474
Ammonia (μg/m3) 0.01 0.003 0.693 0.045 0.982 0.136
Nicotine (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.021 < 0.001 0.041 0.027
o-Cresol (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.491 0.2 0.739 0.881
o-Xylene (μg/m3) 0.001 < 0.001 0.29 0.936 0.584 0.459
Propylene glycol (μg/m3) 0.007 < 0.001 0.008 0.009 0.197 0.166
Phenol (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.231 0.169 0.739 0.881
Pyridine (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.491 0.461 0.739 0.881
Pyrrole (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.491 0.461 0.739 0.8813
RSP (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.178 0.062 0.418 0.527
Solanesol (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.255 0.999 0.846 0.792
Styrene (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.856 0.836 0.507 0.837
Toluene (μg/m3) 0.002 < 0.001 0.732 0.905 0.393 0.691
UVPM (μg/m3) < 0.001 < 0.001 0.373 0.226 0.383 0.384

Exposure limits for propylene glycol.

Country Type of limit Reference concentration Organization (Reference) *
Germany Precautionary level 60 μg/m3 German Federal EPA(48)
Germany Health hazard level 600 μg/m3 German Federal EPA(48)
United States 30-day TWA limit 9.5 mg/m3 NASA(49)
United States WEELs® 10 mg/m3 AIHA(50)
The Netherlands Occupational exposure limit 50 mg/m3 DECOS(51)
United States 24-h TWA limit 53.8 mg/m3 NASA(49)
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