Open Access

Safety of Aircrew and Airline Passengers During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Narrative Review

  
Dec 12, 2024

Cite
Download Cover

Abate, M., Christidis, P., Purwanto, A.J. 2020. Government support to airlines in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Air. Transp. Manag. 89, 101931. doi: 10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101931. Search in Google Scholar

Acuti Martellucci, C., Flacco, M.E., Cappadona, R., Bravi, F., Mantovani, L., Manzoli, L. 2020. SARSCoV-2 pandemic: An overview. Adv. Biol. Regul. 77, 100736. doi: 10.1016/j.jbior.2020.100736. Search in Google Scholar

Airport World. Virgin introduces pre-flight COVID-19 testing for crew. October 05, 2020. https://airport-world.com/virgin-introduces-pre-flight-covid-19-testing-for-crew/ (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

ALPA – Air Line Pilots Association, International. COVID Vaccine Updates for Pilots. March 01, 2021. https://www.alpa.org/news-and-events/news-room/covid-vaccine-update-pilots (accessed 03 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Branswell, H., Cohrs, R. FDA authorizes Johnson & Johnson’s single-dose Covid-19 vaccine. February 27, 2021. https://www.statnews.com/2021/02/27/fda-authorizes-jnj-covid19-vaccine/ (accessed 03 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Brugger, P. COVID-19: Restoring passenger confidence amid the crisis. Jun 19, 2020. https://blog.aci.aero/covid-19-restoring-passenger-confidence-amid-the-crisis/ (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

Bwire, G.M., Majigo, M.V., Njiro, B.J., Mawazo, A. 2020. Detection profile of SARS-CoV-2 using RT-PCR in different types of clinical specimens: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Med. Virol. 10.1002/jmv.26349. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26349. Search in Google Scholar

Cahill, J., Cullen, P., Anwer, S., Gaynor, K., Wilson, S. 2020a. The Requirements for New Tools for Use by Pilots and the Aviation Industry to Manage Risks Pertaining to Work-Related Stress (WRS) and Wellbeing, and the Ensuing Impact on Performance and Safety. Technologies 8, 40. doi:10.3390/technologies8030040. Search in Google Scholar

Cahill, J., Cullen, P., Gaynor R. 2020b. Interventions to support the management of work-related stress (WRS) and wellbeing/mental health issues for commercial pilots. Cogn. Technol. Work. 22, 517–547 doi:10.1007/s10111-019-00586-z. Search in Google Scholar

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Guidelines for Collecting, Handling, and Testing Clinical Specimens for COVID-19. November 05, 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/guidelines-clinical-specimens.html (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

Choi, E.M,. Chu, D.K.W., Cheng, P.K.C., Tsang, D.N.C., Peiris, M., Bausch, D.G., Poon, L.L.M., Watson-Jones, D. 2020. In-Flight Transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26, 2713–2716. doi: 10.3201/eid2611.203254. Search in Google Scholar

Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC). Preventing Spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Guideline for Airlines. Third Edition. February 20, 2020. https://www.icao.int/safety/CAPSCA/PublishingImages/Pages/Coronavirus/China-CAAC-PreventingSpreadofCOVID-19GuidelineAirlines.pdf (accessed 28 February 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Conforti, A., Marra, E., Roscilli, G., Palombo, F., Ciliberto, G., Aurisicchio, L. 2020. Are Genetic Vaccines the Right Weapon against COVID-19? Mol. Ther. 28, 1555–1556. doi: 10.1016/j. ymthe.2020.06.007. Search in Google Scholar

Corman, V.M., Landt, O., Kaiser, M., Molenkamp, R., Meijer, A., Chu, D.K., Bleicker, T., Brünink, S., Schneider, J., Schmidt, M.L., Mulders, D.G., Haagmans, B.L., van der Veer, B., van den Brink, S., Wijsman, L., Goderski, G., Romette, J.L., Ellis, J., Zambon, M., Peiris, M., Goossens, H., Reusken, C., Koopmans, M.P., Drosten, C. 2020. Detection of 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by real-time RT-PCR. Euro Surveill. 25, 2000045. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.3.2000045. Search in Google Scholar

Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 2020. The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2. Nat. Microbiol. 5, 536–544. doi: 10.1038/s41564-020-0695-z. Search in Google Scholar

Cucinotta, D., Vanelli, M. 2020. WHO Declares COVID-19 a Pandemic. Acta Biomed. 91, 157–160. doi: 10.23750/abm.v91i1.9397. Search in Google Scholar

D’Cruz R.J., Currier, A.W., Sampson, V.B. 2020. Laboratory Testing Methods for Novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus-2 (SARSCoV-2). Front. Cell. Dev. Biol. 8, 468. doi: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00468. Search in Google Scholar

Daon, Y., Thompson, R.N., Obolski, U. 2020. Estimating COVID-19 outbreak risk through air travel. J. Travel. Med. 27, taaa093. doi: 10.1093/jtm/taaa093. Search in Google Scholar

Dhamad, A.E., Abdal Rhida, M.A. 2020. COVID-19: molecular and serological detection methods. PeerJ. 8, e10180. doi: 10.7717/peerj.10180. Search in Google Scholar

EASA ECDC COVID-19 Aviation Health Safety Protocol. June 30, 2020. https://www.easa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/dfu/EASA-ECDC_COVID-19_Operational%20guidelines%20for%20management%20of%20passengers_v2.pdf (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

ECDC. COVID-19 testing strategies and objectives. September 15, 2020. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/TestingStrategy_Objective-Sept-2020.pdf (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

Eldin, C., Lagier, J.C., Mailhe, M., Gautret, P. 2020. Probable aircraft transmission of Covid-19 in-flight from the Central African Republic to France. Travel. Med. Infect. Dis. 35, 101643. doi: 10.1016/j. tmaid.2020.101643. Search in Google Scholar

EUROCONTROL. Impact assessment of COVID-19 measures on airport performance. August 29, 2020. https://www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/2020-09/eurocontrol-impact-assessment-covid-19-airport-performance-2020.pdf (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update. February 27, 2021. https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=94991&fbclid=IwAR2PjGaZaXmX4UZjQCPsX-l8kG8NwAbX9mt310_7ochr5DPVMKGmKlX-MdI (accessed 03 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Forni, G., Mantovani, A.; COVID-19 Commission of Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome. 2021. COVID-19 vaccines: where we stand and challenges ahead. Cell. Death. Differ. 28, 626–639. doi: 10.1038/s41418-020-00720-9. Search in Google Scholar

Harris, D. 2011. Human Performance on the Flight Deck, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Taylor & Francis Group, Surrey, England. Search in Google Scholar

Ianzito, C. Will You Need the COVID-19 Vaccine to Travel? ‘Health passports’ showing vaccination status may be required. February 25, 2021. https://www.aarp.org/travel/travel-tips/safety/info-2021/covid-19-vaccines-and-travel.html (accessed 04 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

IATA. IATA Travel Pass Initiative. 2021. https://www.iata.org/en/programs/passenger/travel-pass/ (accessed 04 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Jin, Y., Yang, H., Ji, W., Wu, W., Chen, S., Zhang, W., Duan, G. 2020. Virology, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Control of COVID-19. Viruses. 12, 372. doi: 10.3390/v12040372. Search in Google Scholar

Jones, I., Roy, P. 2021. Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine candidate appears safe and effective. Lancet. 397, 642–643. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00191-4. Search in Google Scholar

Joseph, C. 2016. Stress Coping Strategies in Indian Military Pilots: Preliminary Observations. Int. J. Aviat. Aeronauctics. Aerosp. 2016, 3, doi:10.15394/ijaaa.2016.1147. Search in Google Scholar

Karpiński, T.M., Ożarowski, M., Seremak-Mrozikiewicz, A., Wolski, H., Wlodkowic, D. 2021. The 2020 race towards SARS-CoV-2 specific vaccines. Theranostics. 11, 1690–1702. doi: 10.7150/thno.53691. Search in Google Scholar

Khanh, N.C., Thai, P.Q., Quach, H.L., Thi, N.H., Dinh, P.C., Duong, T.N., Mai, L.T.Q., Nghia, N.D., Tu, T.A., Quang, N., Quang, T.D., Nguyen, T.T., Vogt, F., Anh, D.D. 2020. Transmission of SARS-CoV 2 During Long-Haul Flight. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 26, 2617–2624. doi: 10.3201/eid2611.203299. Search in Google Scholar

Kilic, T., Weissleder, R., Lee, H. 2020. Molecular and Immunological Diagnostic Tests of COVID-19: Current Status and Challenges. iScience. 23, 101406. doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101406. Search in Google Scholar

Kucirka, L.M., Lauer, S.A., Laeyendecker, O., Boon, D., Lessler, J. 2020. Variation in False-Negative Rate of Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction-Based SARS-CoV-2 Tests by Time Since Exposure. Ann. Intern. Med. 173, 262–267. doi: 10.7326/M20-1495. Search in Google Scholar

Lee, Y.H., Liu, B.S. 2003. Inflight workload assessment: comparison of subjective and physiological measurements. Aviat. Space. Environ. Med. 74, 1078–1084. PMID: 14556571. Search in Google Scholar

Machhi, J., Herskovitz, J., Senan, A.M., Dutta, D., Nath, B., Oleynikov, M.D., Blomberg, W.R., Meigs, D.D., Hasan, M., Patel, M., Kline, P., Chang, R.C., Chang, L., Gendelman, H.E., Kevadiya, B.D. 2020. The Natural History, Pathobiology, and Clinical Manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 Infections. J. Neuroimmune. Pharmacol. 15, 359–386. doi: 10.1007/s11481-020-09944-5. Search in Google Scholar

Maszczynski, M. United Airlines Plans to Extend Pre-Flight Rapid COVID-19 Flight Attendant Testing. October 10, 2020. https://www.paddleyourownkanoo.com/2020/10/10/united-airlines-plans-to-extend-pre-flight-rapid-covid-19-flight-attendant-testing/ (accessed 03 December 2020). Search in Google Scholar

Mitchell, S.L., St George, K., Rhoads, D.D., Butler-Wu, S.M., Dharmarha, V., McNult, P., Miller, M.B. 2020. Understanding, Verifying, and Implementing Emergency Use Authorization Molecular Diagnostics for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. J. Clin. Microbiol. 58, e00796-20. doi: 10.1128/JCM.00796-20. Search in Google Scholar

Moriarty, D. 2015. Practical Human Factors for Pilots, Academic Press, London, UK. Search in Google Scholar

Nakamura, H., Managi, S. 2020. Airport risk of importation and exportation of the COVID-19 pandemic. Transp. Policy. (Oxf). 96, 40–47. doi: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2020.06.018. Search in Google Scholar

No authors listed. 2020. COVID vaccines: the world’s medical regulators need access to open data. Nature. 588, 195. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-03458-z. Search in Google Scholar

Petersen, E., Koopmans, M., Go, U., Hamer, D.H., Petrosillo, N., Castelli, F., Storgaard, M., Al Khalili, S., Simonsen, L. 2020. Comparing SARS-CoV-2 with SARS-CoV and influenza pandemics. Lancet Infect. Dis. 20 e238–e244. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30484-9. Search in Google Scholar

Polack, F.P., Thomas, S.J., Kitchin, N., Absalon, J., Gurtman, A., Lockhart, S., Perez, J.L., Pérez Marc, G., Moreira, E.D., Zerbini, C., Bailey, R., Swanson, K.A., Roychoudhury, S., Koury, K., Li, P., Kalina, W.V., Cooper, D., Frenck, R.W.Jr., Hammitt, L.L., Türeci, Ö., Nell, H., Schaefer, A., Ünal, S., Tresnan, D.B., Mather, S., Dormitzer, P.R., Şahin, U., Jansen, K.U., Gruber, W.C.; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group. 2020. Safety and Efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine. N. Engl. J. Med. 383, 2603–2615. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2034577. Search in Google Scholar

Pombal, R., Hosegood, I., Powell, D. 2020. Risk of COVID-19 During Air Travel. JAMA. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.19108. Search in Google Scholar

Qian, G.Q., Yang, N.B., Ding, F., Ma, A.H.Y., Wang, Z.Y., Shen, Y.F., Shi, C.W., Lian, X., Chu, J.G., Chen, L., Wang, Z.Y., Ren, D.W., Li, G.X., Chen, X.Q., Shen, H.J., Chen, X.M. 2020. Epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of 91 hospitalized patients with COVID-19 in Zhejiang, China: a retrospective, multi-centre case series. QJM. 113, 474–481. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcaa089. Search in Google Scholar

Roscoe, A.H. 1978. Stress and workload in pilots. Aviat. Space. Environ. Med. 49, 630–633. Search in Google Scholar

Schwartz, K.L., Murti, M., Finkelstein, M., Leis, J.A., Fitzgerald-Husek, A., Bourns, L., Meghani, H., Saunders, A., Allen, V., Yaffe, B. 2020. Lack of COVID-19 transmission on an international flight. CMAJ. 192, E410. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.75015. Search in Google Scholar

Serrano, F., Kazda, A. 2020. The future of airport post COVID-19. J. Air Transp. Manag. 89, 101900. doi: 10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101900. Search in Google Scholar

Safely Restarting Aviation – ACI and IATA Joint Approach. 2021. https://store.aci.aero/product/safely-restarting-aviation-aci-and-iata-joint-approach/ (accessed 28 February 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Sampson, H. 2021. Airlines are starting to take flight with vaccinated crews. Etihad Airways and Singapore Airlines Group hope to make passengers feel more comfortable by promoting their vaccinated pilots and cabin crews. February 11, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2021/02/11/airline-singapore-etihad-covidvaccine/ (accessed 04 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

Sempowski, G.D., Saunders, K.O., Acharya, P., Wiehe, K.J., Haynes, B.F. 2020. Pandemic preparedness: developing vaccines and therapeutic antibodies for COVID-19. Cell. 181, 1458–63. doi: 10.1016/j. cell.2020.05.041. Search in Google Scholar

Sharma, O., Sultan, A.A., Ding, H., Triggle, C.R. 2020. A Review of the Progress and Challenges of Developing a Vaccine for COVID-19. Front. Immunol. 11:585354. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.585354. Search in Google Scholar

Sharpe, H.R., Gilbride, C., Allen, E., Belij-Rammerstorfer, S., Bissett, C., Ewer, K., Lambe, T. 2020. The early landscape of coronavirus disease 2019 vaccine development in the UK and rest of the world. Immunology. 160, 223–232. doi: 10.1111/imm.13222 Search in Google Scholar

Sobieralski, J.B. 2020. COVID-19 and airline employment: Insights from historical uncertainty shocks to the industry. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives. 5, 100123. doi:10.1016/j.trip.2020.100123. Search in Google Scholar

Sun, X., Wandelt, S., Zhang, A. 2020. How did COVID-19 impact air transportation? A first peek through the lens of complex networks. J. Air. Transp. Manag. 89, 101928. doi: 10.1016/j. jairtraman.2020.101928. Search in Google Scholar

The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2020. Air travel in the time of COVID-19. Lancet Infect. Dis. 20, 993. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30647-2. Search in Google Scholar

Vandenberg, O., Martiny, D., Rochas, O., van Belkum, A., Kozlakidis, Z. 2020. Considerations for diagnostic COVID-19 tests. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 14, 1–13. doi: 10.1038/s41579-020-00461-z. Search in Google Scholar

van Riel, D., de Wit, E. 2020. Next-generation vaccine platforms for COVID-19. Nat Mater. 19, 810–812. doi: 10.1038/s41563-020-0746-0. Search in Google Scholar

Wang, W., Xu, Y., Gao, R., Lu, R., Han, K., Wu, G., Tan, W. 2020. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens. JAMA. 323, 1843–1844. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.3786. Search in Google Scholar

Weissleder, R., Lee, H., Ko, J., Pittet, M.J. 2020; COVID-19 diagnostics in context. Sci. Transl. Med. 12, eabc1931. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abc1931. Search in Google Scholar

Wiersinga, W.J., Rhodes, A., Cheng, A.C., Peacock, S.J., Prescott, H.C. 2020. Pathophysiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 324, 782–793. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.12839. Search in Google Scholar

Woloshin, S., Patel, N., Kesselheim, A.S. 2020. False Negative Tests for SARS-CoV-2 Infection -Challenges and Implications. N. Engl. J. Med. 383, e38. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp2015897. Search in Google Scholar

World Health Organization (WHO). Operational considerations for managing COVID-19 cases or outbreak in aviation. Interim guidance. March 18, 2020. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/331488/WHO-2019-nCoV-Aviation-2020.1-eng.pdf (accessed 28 February 2021). Search in Google Scholar

World Health Organization (WHO). WHO SAGE Roadmap For Prioritizing Uses Of COVID-19 Vaccines In The Context Of Limited Supply. An approach to inform planning and subsequent recommendations based upon epidemiologic setting and vaccine supply scenarios. Version 1.1. November 13, 2020. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/who-sage-roadmap-forprioritizing-uses-of-covid-19-vaccines-in-the-context-of-limited-supply (accessed 04 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

World Health Organization (WHO). Draft landscape and tracker of COVID-19 candidate vaccines. Overview. The COVID-19 candidate vaccine landscape and tracker. March 02, 2021. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines (accessed 04 March 2021). Search in Google Scholar

FIGURES CAPTIONS Search in Google Scholar

Figure 1. COVID-19 rapid antigen test. This RDT is a fast chromatographic immunoassay for the qualitative detection of SARS-CoV-2 antigens in NP swab samples from individuals with suspected SARS-CoV-2 infection. Positive results indicate the presence of viral antigens; however, other diagnostic parameters and the clinical correlation with patient history are essential to define infection status. Positive results do not rule out the infection or co-infection with other viruses. Negative results do not exclude SARS-CoV-2 infection and should not be used as the only basis for treatment or patient management decisions. Negative results should be considered in the context of a patient’s recent exposures, clinical history, and presence of clinical symptoms consistent with COVID-19. Abbreviations: COVID-19, Coronavirus Disease 2019; NP, nasopharyngeal swab; RDT, rapid diagnostic test; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2. Search in Google Scholar

Language:
English
Publication timeframe:
1 times per year
Journal Subjects:
Medicine, Basic Medical Science, Basic Medical Science, other