Social Media: An Exploratory Study of Information, Misinformation, Disinformation, and Malinformation

[1] C. T. Carr and R. A. Hayes, “Social media: defining, developing, and divining,” Atlantic Journal of Communication, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 46–65, Sep. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.972282 Search in Google Scholar

[2] M. H. Nguyen, “The impact of social media on students’ lives: case: LAB University of Applied Sciences,” Theseus, 2021. https://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/499169 Search in Google Scholar

[3] C. Fuchs, Social Media: A Critial Introduction, 3rd ed. SAGE Publications Ltd, 2021, p. 448. Search in Google Scholar

[4] J. Kim and M. Hastak, “Social network analysis: Characteristics of online social networks after a disaster,” International Journal of Information Management, vol. 38, no. 1, Feb. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.08.003 Search in Google Scholar

[5] M. K. Eriksson and S. Lindgren, “Continued contexts of terror: analyzing temporal patterns of hashtag co-occurrence as discursive articulations,” Social Media + Society, vol. 4, no. 4, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305118813649 Search in Google Scholar

[6] K. Shu, A. Bhattacharjee, F. Alatawi, T. Nazer, K. Ding, M. Karami, and H. Liu, “Combating disinformation in a social media age,” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, vol. 10, no. 6, Aug. 2020, Art. no. e1385. https://doi.org/10.1002/widm.1385 Search in Google Scholar

[7] J. A. Knoh et al., “Tornado debris characteristics and trajectories during the 27 April 2011 super outbreak as determined using social media data,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 94, no. 9, pp. 1371–1380, Sep. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00036.1 Search in Google Scholar

[8] L. Wu, F. Morstatter, M. K. Carley, and H. Liu, “Misinformation in social media: Definition, manipulation, and detection,” ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 80–90, Dec. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1145/3373464.3373475 Search in Google Scholar

[9] B. Duraisamy, J. Rathinaswamy, and K. Sengottaiyan, “Social media reigned by information or misinformation about COVID-19: A phenomenological study,” Social Sciences & Humanities Open, Apr. 2020. Search in Google Scholar

[10] “Why “Misinformation” was dictionary.com’s 2018 word of the year,” Nov. 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.dictionary.com/e/word-ofthe-year-2018/. Accessed 14 November 2022. Search in Google Scholar

[11] M. Webster, “Information.” [Online]. Available: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/information. Accessed 19 April 2022. Search in Google Scholar

[12] The Britannica Dictionary, “Information.” [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/information. Accessed 19 April 2022. Search in Google Scholar

[13] R. M. Stair and J. Aldcorn, Principles of Information Systems: A Managerial Approach, Published by Nelson College Indigenous, 2013. Search in Google Scholar

[14] M. Gebel, “Misinformation vs. disinformation: What to know about each form of false information, and how to spot them online,” Business Insider, 2021. [Online]. Available at: https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/tech-news-technology/more-indians-searching-on-health-matters-but-fears-of-search-bias-growing-survey-5438617/. Accessed 26 August 2021. Search in Google Scholar

[15] J. Posetti, C. Ireton, C. Wardle, H. Derakhshan, A. Matthews, M. Abu-Fadil, T. Trewinnard, F. Bell and A. Mantzarlis, “Journalism, ‘Fake News’ & Disinformation,” UNESCO, 2018. https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/journalism_fake_news_disinformation_print_friendly_0.pdf Search in Google Scholar

[16] “A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: Report of the independent high level group on fake news and online disinformation,” European Commission, 2018. https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/final-report-high-level-expert-group-fake-news-and-online-disinformation Search in Google Scholar

[17] Statista, “Number of social media users worldwide from 2018 to 2022, with forecasts from 2023 to 2027,” June 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/. Accessed 29 August 2022. Search in Google Scholar

[18] B. Auxier and M. Anderson, “Socail media use in 2021,” Pew Research Center, 2021. [Online]. Available: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/ Search in Google Scholar

[19] A. Labban and L. Bizzi, “Are social media good or bad for employees? It depends on when they use them,” Behaviour & Information Technology, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 678–693, Oct. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2020.1830174 Search in Google Scholar

[20] H. H. Thorp, “Science and social media,” Science, vol. 375, no. 6581, p. 593, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo4606 Search in Google Scholar

[21] T. R. Soomro and M. Hussain, “Social media-related cybercrimes and techniques for their prevention.,” Applied Computer Systems, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 9–17, May 2019. https://doi.org/10.2478/acss-2019-0002 Search in Google Scholar

[22] L. Almadhoor, F. Alserhani, and M. Humayun, “Social media and cybercrimes,” Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, vol. 12, no. 10, pp. 2972–2981, 2021. Search in Google Scholar

[23] P. N. Petratos, “Misinformation, disinformation, and fake news: Cyber risks to business,” Business Horizons, vol. 64, no. 6, pp. 763–774, Nov.-Dec. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2021.07.012 Search in Google Scholar

[24] D. Carroll, Artist, United Breaks Guitars. [Art]. YouTube, 2009. T. Andres, “A broken guitar, a YouTube video and a new era of customer service,” www.marketplace.org, 5 July 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.marketplace.org/2019/07/05/a-broken-guitar-a-youtube-video-and-a-new-era-of-customer-service/. [Accessed 30 August 2022] Search in Google Scholar

[25] A. Chakraborty and S. D. Arora, “Managing adversity: Brands and COVID-19,” The Journal for Decision Makers, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 106–115, Jun. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1177/02560909221105937 Search in Google Scholar

[26] World Economic Forum, “The global risks,” 2022, [Online]. Available: https://reliefweb.int/report/world/global-risks-report-2022-17th-edition-insight-report?gclid=CjwKCAjwvmkBhBMEiwAlrMeF0MTYAeiuWPZRD-5NunsH-wp7jFeIbyhv7GZlkbOJrLi2CsbBQ8hiBoCuOgQAvD_BwE Search in Google Scholar

[27] G. Rannard, “How Pakistan floods are linked to climate change,” BBC News, Sep. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-62758811 Search in Google Scholar

[28] J. Siddiqui, “Pakistan’s climate challenges pose a national security emergency,” United States Institute of Peace, Jul. 2022. [Online]. Available: https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/07/pakistans-climate-challenges-pose-national-security-emergency Search in Google Scholar

[29] S. Kaplan and S. George, “At COP27, flood-battered Pakistan leads push to make polluting countries pay,” Washington Post, 2022, [Online]. Available: https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/11/05/cop27-summit-egypt-climate-change/ Search in Google Scholar

[30] K. M. D. Treen, H. T. P. Williams, and S. J. O’Neill, “Online misinformation about climate change,” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, vol. 11, no. 5, Oct. 2020, Art. no. e665. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.665 Search in Google Scholar

[31] S. Lewandowsky, “Climate change disinformation and how to combat it,” Annual Review of Public Health, vol. 42, pp. 1–21, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409 Search in Google Scholar

[32] R. E. Dunlap and P. J. Jacques, “Climate change denial books and conservative think tanks,” American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 57, no. 6, pp. 699–731, Feb. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764213477096 Search in Google Scholar

[33] R. J. Brulle, “The climate lobby: a sectoral analysis of lobbying spending on climate change in the USA, 2000 to 2016,” vol. 149, pp. 289–303, Jul. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2241-z Search in Google Scholar

[34] J. Farrell, K. McConnell and R. J. Brulle, “Evidence-based strategies to combat scientific misinformation,” Nature Climate Change, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 191–195, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0368-6 Search in Google Scholar

[35] B. Franta, “Early oil industry disinformation on global warming,” Environmental Politics, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 663–668, Jan. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2020.1863703 Search in Google Scholar

[36] S. B. Johnson et al., “Cancer misinformation and harmful information on Facebook and other social media: A brief report get access arrow,” JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 114, no. 7, pp. 1036–1039, Jul. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djab141 Search in Google Scholar

[37] S. Vosoughi, D. Roy, and S. Aral, “The spread of true and false news online,” Science, vol. 359, no. 6380, pp. 1146–1151, Mar. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559 Search in Google Scholar

[38] M. A. Gisondi et al., “A deadly infodemic: Social media and the power of COVID-19 misinformation,” Journal of Medical Internet Research, vol. 24, no. 2, Feb. 2022, Art. no. e35552. https://doi.org/10.2196/35552 Search in Google Scholar

[39] World Health Organization, “Infodemic.” [Online]. Available: https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1. [Accessed 28 Aug 2022] Search in Google Scholar

[40] EU Disinfo Lab, “About us,” [Online]. Available: https://www.disinfo.eu/about-us/. [Accessed 28 August 2022] Search in Google Scholar

[41] EU Disinfo Lab, “Indian chronicles: deep dive into a 15-year operation targeting the EU and UN to serve Indian interests,” Dec. 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/indian-chronicles-deep-dive-into-a-15-year-operation-targeting-the-eu-and-un-to-serve-indian-interests/. [Accessed 28 August 2022] Search in Google Scholar

[42] M. Brenan, “Americans’ trust in media dips to second lowest on record,” Gallup, 2021, [Online]. Available: https://news.gallup.com/poll/355526/americans-trust-media-dips-second-lowest-record.aspx Search in Google Scholar

[43] A. Ali, K. F. K. Ghouri, H. Naseem, T. R. Soomro, W. Mansoor, and A.M. Momani, “Battle of deep fakes: Artificial intelligence set to become a major threat to the individual and national security,” in International Conference on Cyber Resilience (ICCR), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, Oct. 2022, pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCR56254.2022.9995821 Search in Google Scholar

[44] M. Baezner and S. Cordey, “A threat to democracies?: An overview of theoretical approaches and empirical measurements for studying the effects of disinformation,” in Cyber Security Politics: Socio -Technological Transformations and Political Fragmentation, London, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2022, p. 286. Search in Google Scholar

[45] A. Bovet and H. A. Makse, “Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election,” Nature Communications, vol. 10, no. 1, Jan. 2019, Art. no. 7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2 Search in Google Scholar

[46] J. P. Baptista and A. Gradim, “Online disinformation on Facebook: the spread of fake news during the Portuguese 2019 election,” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 297–312, Nov. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2020.1843415 Search in Google Scholar

[47] I. Varlamis, D. Michail, F. Glykou, and P. Tsantilas, “A survey on the use of graph convolutional networks for combating fake news,” Future Internet, vol. 14, no. 3, Feb. 2022, Art. no. 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14030070 Search in Google Scholar

[48] B. Collins, D. T. Hoang, N. T. Nguyen, and D. Hwang, “Trends in combating fake news on social media – A survey,” Journal of Information and Telecommunication, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 247–266, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751839.2020.1847379 Search in Google Scholar