Embracing Avocado (Persea americana) Farming Among Smallholder Farmers in Rural Households in Kenya: Challenges, Opportunities and Strategies for Sustainable Growth

The primary target population consisted of small-scale avocado farmers in the selected region. A list of avocado farmers, obtained from local agricultural offices, served as the sampling frame. A total of 144 smallholder farmers were interviewed. Secondary respondents included representatives of agricultural cooperatives, county government agricultural officers, and NGOs supporting avocado farming.

Primary data were collected through surveys, key informant interviews (KIIs), and focus group discussions (FGDS):

Surveys: A structured questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data on farmers’ demographic characteristics, farming practices, opportunities in avocado farming, and challenges faced.

Secondary data was obtained through a review of reports, policy documents, and agricultural extension records, which provided contextual background and complemented primary data findings.

The study adhered to ethical research principles:

Informed consent was obtained from all participants, who were provided with detailed information about the study.

Voluntary participation was emphasized, and respondents were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any stage if they felt uncomfortable.

The perishability of avocados presents a significant challenge, as they are highly perishable with a limited post-harvest shelf life. Proper handling, storage, and timely transportation are therefore critical to minimizing losses. However, many farmers lack access to cold storage facilities and reliable transportation networks, resulting in significant post-harvest losses.

Approximately 83% of farmers reported that poor road conditions made transportation a major issue. Additionally, unpredictable market demand and limited access to dependable buyers caused delays in selling the produce, leading to further spoilage. This finding is consistent with Mbogo (2023), who noted that fresh produce farmers in Kenya lose up to 45% of their crops due to poor transportation infrastructure. Similarly, Githumbi (2022) found that inadequate transport and storage contribute to 40–50% of post-harvest losses in mango farming.

In Kiambu County, poor transportation not only reduces farmers’ income but also discourages them from expanding their production, thus hindering the sustainable growth of avocado farming. One farmer with just 12 avocado trees shared the following:

Why should I plant more avocados when I am not able to sell the ones I already have? Those people who come to buy our avocados knows that we cannot store them for long. They therefore buy them when they want and at the price they want. Avocados are not like maize which I can store for a longer period. As a farmer, the earlier I sell and get whatever I get the better before they ripen, or they over-mature.

To address the issue of perishability, significant investments in post-harvest infrastructure, training on best practices, and enhanced market access are needed.

Theft of both avocado seedlings and fruits was identified as a major challenge for smallholder farmers in Kiambu County. This issue poses a significant threat to the farmers’ investments and livelihoods. Many farmers reported that they either planted avocado seeds directly on their farms and then grafted the trees, or purchased grafted seedlings from established nurseries such as Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT) and Kakuzi Limited, or from experienced farmers with grafting expertise. These high-quality seedlings were expensive, ranging from Ksh 150 to Ksh 200 each. However, thieves frequently targeted these seedlings, especially in the early stages when they are easier to uproot. As a result, farmers faced direct financial losses, and the establishment of their trees was delayed.

Similarly, a significant 97.5% of farmers reported that theft of mature fruits during harvest season posed a serious challenge to avocado farming in the region. One key informant, an area assistant chief, shared the following:

The demand for avocados in the local and export market is high. This has led to the emergence of many thieves in this area who steal fruits directly from our farms. We are forced to keep vigil, especially at night. Tracking the stolen avocados is difficult because there are many boda bodas (motorbikes) which are used to transport them to the nearest town particularly late at night.

This study aligns with previous reports that have highlighted theft as a significant challenge for avocado farmers in Kenya (Kinyua, 2024). The theft of fruits had severely disrupted market supply chains, as stolen avocados were often sold at lower prices in local markets.

To address this issue, farmers could adopt enhanced security measures and consider forming cooperative groups for shared surveillance. Additionally, local authorities should work towards preventing theft by introducing stricter penalties for those caught stealing avocados.

Despite the high nutritional value and health benefits of avocados, the local community – particularly the older generation – has viewed avocados as a non-essential food item. As a result, their focus has remained on staples like maize and beans, as well as cash crops such as tea and coffee. The older generation has not fully embraced avocados as an important part of their diet. Consequently, farmers were often left with surplus produce that could not be absorbed by the local market, thus increasing the risk of post-harvest losses. In addition, the low local demand has forced farmers to rely heavily on export markets, which are subject to strict quality standards and logistical challenges. This dependence on external markets has created vulnerabilities, as farmers have faced significant losses when export opportunities have not been well tapped.

One of the farmers who had about 50 trees of the Fuerte and Hass varieties reported:

People here do not think that avocados are supposed to be eaten by adults. The older generation sell them but they rarely eat the fruit. Traditionally, people have seen avocados as being meant for the dogs, as some people here still call them manoria ngui or maguna ngui. Nobody wants to be seen as if he is competing with the dogs. Dogs like eating avocados that ripen after they drop down the trees. Fortunately, the younger people have now totally embraced avocado and they like eating them with ugali, rice and githeri.

Studies examining avocado consumption patterns in Kenya have found that domestic consumption accounts for only 47% of the country’s avocado production (Kimitei and Tate, 2025; Mwangi, 2021). To encourage local consumption, public awareness campaigns, nutrition education programs and value-addition initiatives can help diversify market opportunities. Increased local demand would not only stabilize prices for farmers but also improve food security and health outcomes for the local population.

Price volatility further exacerbates smallholder farmers’ vulnerability and significantly impacts their incomes and long-term sustainability. Avocado prices frequently fluctuate due to seasonal variations in supply and demand, with peak harvest periods flooding the market and causing sharp price declines. Since smallholder farmers lack cold storage facilities and urgently need to sell their produce to meet their immediate needs, they are often forced to sell at drastically low prices. The oversupply seasons contrast with periods of scarcity when prices rise but farmers do not have enough produce to take advantage of the higher market prices. The unpredictable nature of avocado prices makes it difficult for farmers to plan their production and finances effectively.

Smallholder farmers also lack direct access to lucrative export markets, which forces them to depend largely on intermediaries who dictate prices. The fluctuation in the prices, combined with manipulation by brokers, makes it difficult for farmers to predict their returns. This uncertainty discourages them from investing in avocado farming.

One farmer in a FGD shared the following:

Last season, they bought my Hass avocados at Ksh 15, and this year, they have bought at only Ksh 10. The buyers told me that people in China are not buying our avocados at good prices because our avocados are not of good quality. Yet, my neighbor has sold his avocado at Ksh 20. I know they just exploited me because I am old, and my children are not here to help me negotiate with them. Even when they were counting the number of pieces, they counted very fast. I called the son of my neighbor to help me, but they bought him alcohol as they harvested. When he came back, they had already counted the produce and gave me only Ksh 14,000 for avocados that, in my estimate, were worth more than Ksh 40,000.

The findings of this study support those of Mwangi et al. (2024), who examined marketing dynamics in Kenya and found that 99% of farmers sold most of their produce through brokers, who were often exploitative. Despite feeling exploited, farmers continued selling to brokers because they provided immediate payment and a ready market.

According to the theory of reasoned action, many farmers continue to sell to brokers despite price exploitation because of subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. They believe they lack direct market access. This behavior persists even when they recognize that they are being exploited.

Addressing price volatility requires strengthening market linkages and promoting farmer cooperatives to negotiate better prices. Additionally, implementing policies that stabilize the avocado market and encourage value addition would reduce farmers’ dependence on the sale of raw fruits.

The cobweb theorem, combined with the long gestation period of avocado farming, presents a significant challenge for smallholder farmers in Kiambu County. The cobweb theorem illustrates how farmers’ production decisions, based on past prices, can lead to cycles of oversupply and scarcity in the market. When avocado prices are high due to scarcity, farmers are motivated to plant and nurture trees to capitalize on future profits. However, the long gestation period of avocados, which typically takes 3–5 years to mature and bear fruit, creates a lag between the decision to increase production and the actual market supply.

The transition from traditional crops to avocados requires a considerable time investment. By the time increased production reaches the market, prices may have dropped significantly, leading to reduced profits or even financial losses for farmers. The delayed response not only disrupts the market but also discourages farmers from consistently investing in avocado farming. Conversely, when prices are low, many farmers reduce their investment or abandon avocado farming altogether, leading to future scarcity and subsequent rise in prices. This cyclical price volatility, combined with the long gestation period of avocados, makes it difficult for farmers to predict returns or to maintain stable incomes. Consequently, avocado farmers in Kiambu find it challenging to rely on the sale of the fruit.

One farmer in an FGD shared how he struggled to adjust to changes in the prices:

You can never be sure that you will sell avocado at a good price. Three years ago, the price was very good at Ksh 20, but the last two seasons, the price was very low at Ksh 10 per fruit. I had to cut down my trees and used the wood to make charcoal, and then I planted maize on the farm. In some section of my land, I started taking care of coffee. Now I hear avocado prices will be good, and I have started taking care of them and I have applied manure. I have recently planted twenty new trees.

To overcome the challenges posed by the Cobweb effect and the long gestation periods in avocado farming, coordinated production planning and value addition are essential to reduce reliance on volatile avocado sales.

Limited access to resources is a significant challenge for smallholder avocado farmers, restricting their ability to capitalize on the growing demand for avocados. Farmers struggle to obtain essential agricultural inputs such as high-quality seedlings, fertilizers, pesticides, farm manure, and irrigation facilities, all of which directly impact productivity and profitability.

Financial constraints further exacerbate the problem. Most smallholder farmers lack collateral, making it difficult to secure loans. As a result, they are unable to invest in improved farming techniques, irrigation systems and storage facilities, limiting their capacity to enhance yields and quality.

In Kiambu, access to extension services is notably low. Only 18.8% of farmers have received training, while the majority (81.2%) lack the technical knowledge necessary for sustainable avocado farming practices and meeting export quality standards. For instance, the researcher found that farmers do not know how to protect young avocado trees from dik-diks – small antelopes that feed on tender shoots and leaves, damaging saplings and stunting tree growth. Additionally, the absence of technical knowledge led to inefficient avocado harvesting methods further reducing yields and farmers’ income.

Resource limitations also expose farmers to exploitation by predatory avocado brokers, who take advantage of their financial struggles and lack of market access. Another major constraint is land size; 66.7% of smallholder farmers operate on two acres or less. These fragmented land holdings make it difficult to scale up production or implement efficient farming practices.

Addressing these challenges requires targeted interventions to equip smallholder avocado farmers with the necessary resources, training and financial support. By overcoming these barriers, farmers can improve productivity, enhance profitability and contribute more effectively to the agricultural sector.

Environmental concerns pose a significant challenge to smallholder avocado farming in Kiambu County. Similar challenges have been observed in Mexico, where intensive avocado production has been linked to biodiversity loss, extreme weather conditions, extensive soil degradation, and irreversible environmental damage (Ayala, 2020). Avocado cultivation, if not managed sustainably, can have detrimental effects on local ecosystems worldwide, including in Kiambu County. Avocados have high water demand, which can strain limited water resources, particularly during the dry season (Betz, 2021).

During a FGD, one participant highlighted the difficulties faced due to water shortages:

Water is a big problem in this area. I planted my trees several times because only a few survived the dry seasons. There was a time I bought 40 trees from JKUAT and they all dried. It was difficult for me to fetch water from a nearby stream. I employed a young man to water the trees but they could not survive. I decided to plant the seeds directly into the farm and then later employed someone to graft the young trees. Fortunately, there was good rains in that season and that is when these trees you are seeing here survived. Those three trees you see over there have dried because of the dry spell we are currently experiencing.

More than 80% of surveyed farmers did not practice mulching to prevent water loss. Avocado farming has created competition for water among farmers, domestic users, and other agricultural activities such as cabbage, potato, carrot, and tomato farming. Over-extraction of water for irrigation risks depleting local rivers, threatening long-term agricultural sustainability. Additionally, in some cases, avocado farming in Kiambu has required the clearing of natural vegetation, leading to deforestation, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and increased risks of land degradation and flooding.

Among the farmers interviewed, 13% had applied chemical fertilizers to their avocado trees, while only 9% had ever used some pesticides. The use of these agrochemicals poses a risk of soil and water contamination, which can harm both human and animal health.

To mitigate these challenges, sustainable farming practices such as water conservation and agroforestry should be promoted. There is also an urgent need to educate farmers on the benefits of using organic manure to reduce environmental impact and support the long-term sustainability of avocado farming in Kiambu County.

Avocado farming in Kiambu faces considerable obstacles due to the absence of comprehensive policy frameworks that address the needs of smallholder farmers, as well as weak enforcement mechanisms that hinder effective sector regulation. Although the crop has become an important export commodity, regulations and guidelines on production standards and marketing remain inadequate. As a result, farmers lack clear direction on sustainable farming practices and quality assurance measures needed to meet both local and international market demands.

One of the key informants noted:

Farmers are on their own and nobody cares whether they are exploited by cartels and brokers. Recently some people who claimed they were sent by the government came here and asked farmers the number of trees they have. We hear that they want to tax the farmers. There has never been any government support in acquiring the seedlings, manure or fertilizers. Farmers deal directly with the brokers who most of the time dismiss the produce as being of poor quality. Fortunately, we have a few good people who come with pick-ups and Probox vehicles to buy avocados and sell in Thika, Ruiru and Juja towns.

Government support in the form of financial incentives remains limited, making it difficult for smallholder farmers to access high-quality seedlings, fertilizers and irrigation systems. This constraint reduces their productivity and competitiveness, as highlighted in FGDs. Additionally, the absence of strong market-support mechanisms means that farmers lack access to organized markets and structured value chains. Without policies to promote cooperative development, collective marketing, or contract farming, farmers struggle to secure fair prices for their produce (Muma, 2024).

Furthermore, there are no established policies to regulate pricing and ensure fair trade practices, leaving smallholder farmers vulnerable to exploitation by intermediaries. Investment in agricultural extension services and research is also insufficient, depriving farmers of the knowledge and skills necessary for sustainable avocado farming. The lack of coordinated policies to address these shortcomings continues to hinder the potential of avocado farming in Kiambu County as a driver of community development and economic growth.

The demand for avocados has surged both locally and globally, particularly in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia, presenting a valuable opportunity for smallholder farmers in Kiambu County. In Kenya, domestic consumption is gradually increasing, providing farmers with a steady local market and reducing overreliance on exports. Meanwhile, global demand continues to rise, with Kenya emerging as a major supplier of Hass avocados, which command premium prices. However, as Griesbach (2005) notes:

Even though the local and export marketing potential is there, this can be expected to become more competitive in the future and will require keeping abreast of developments affecting the sector especially when it comes to adhering to consumer needs, preferences, pesticide residue standards and traceability regulations.

The expansion of international sales has been facilitated by compliance with emerging export standards and certifications such as GlobalGAP and organic farming certifications. These certifications can open access to high-value markets, allowing smallholders to secure premium prices for their produce. (Mwangi et al., 2022). Additionally, the growing preference for organically grown avocados provides a niche for smallholder farmers willing to adopt organic practices. Organic farming not only reduces reliance on expensive chemical inputs but also enhances marketability in premium segments that prioritize sustainability and ethical production. Support from agricultural extension officers and training programs can help farmers achieve these certifications, strengthening their competitiveness in the global avocado market.

Furthermore, the expansion of international trade agreements and partnerships between Kenyan exporters and foreign buyers presents another promising avenue for smallholder farmers. Contract farming arrangements with exporters can offer technical support, guaranteed markets, and stable pricing, reducing uncertainties in the market. By securing such agreements, farmers in Kiambu can confidently invest in avocado cultivation, knowing they have assured income and access to broader market opportunities.

The Kenyan government, in collaboration with development agencies, provides valuable opportunities for smallholder avocado farmers, through various initiatives. Programs such as the Kenya Avocado Strategy (2020–2025) aim to support farmers by offering subsidies, training and export facilitation. These initiatives enhance farmers’ access to extension services, improving productivity and market readiness.

Beyond government support, NGOs, research institutes, universities, and private sector actors play a crucial role in empowering farmers. They offer financial and technical assistance, educate farmers on modern agricultural techniques, supply high-quality seedlings, and create market linkages. Training programs help farmers develop essential skills in pest management, pruning, and harvesting, ensuring compliance with export standards. Additionally, farmers are encouraged to adopt innovative practices such as agroforestry and soil conservation, which not only boost avocado production but also promote environmental sustainability.

Institutional support also provides opportunities for farmers to participate in benchmarking field visits to learn from the most successful avocado farmers in the country. These visits enable knowledge-sharing and the adoption of best practices, ultimately strengthening the avocado farming sector in Kiambu County.

Some farmers avoid cooperatives due to concerns about efficiency, the belief that individual marketing is more profitable, or doubts about cooperatives’ effectiveness. According to the theory of reasoned action, their decision is shaped by their attitudes towards collective action and their perceived ability to navigate markets independently. However, smallholder farmers in Kiambu have the opportunity to form cooperatives to pool resources, share knowledge and negotiate better prices for their avocados.

Farmers’ cooperatives and organizations such as Kenya Horticultural Exporters (KHE) provide collective marketing, giving members better bargaining power and reducing exploitation by middlemen. Additionally, cooperatives allow farmers to purchase essential inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides in bulk, lowering costs and improving access to quality supplies.

Another key advantage of cooperatives is their role in group certification processes, making it easier for smallholder farmers to meet export requirements.

Smallholder farmers in Kiambu can increase their profitability through value addition and income diversification. By processing avocados into products such as oil, cosmetics, juices and other by-products, farmers can add value to their produce, tapping into high-value markets. Support for small-scale cooperatives and agribusiness ventures could help establish local value-added enterprises.

Avocado farming also offers a complementary income source alongside traditional crops like tea, coffee and maize. Farmers can diversify their revenue by planting additional crops or practicing intercropping with nitrogen-fixing crops such as sweet potatoes or cassava, which improve soil fertility while boosting overall income. This approach not only enhances profitability but also supports sustainable agricultural practices.

Furthermore, avocado farming presents an opportunity for agri-tourism. Kiambu’s proximity to Nairobi makes it an ideal location for farmers to attract visitors interested in learning about avocado farming. Farmers can organize farm tours, offer avocado product tastings, and showcase sustainable farming practices, providing an additional income stream and raising awareness about the benefits of avocado farming.

The adoption of modern agricultural technologies presents a significant opportunity for smallholder avocado farmers to enhance productivity and efficiency. Techniques such as drip irrigation and precision farming can significantly increase production. Additionally, weather forecasting apps and mobile platforms for market information enable farmers to make informed decisions, helping them to better manage resources and increase productivity.

Technology also plays a vital role in pest and disease management. Digital tools can provide farmers with timely guidance on controlling pests and diseases, ultimately improving the quality of their avocados and reducing post-harvest losses. Moreover, young farmers can leverage digital platforms to connect directly with buyers, bypassing brokers and securing better prices for their produce.

Kiambu County benefits from moderate rainfall, fertile soils, and a favorable altitude, providing optimal conditions for avocado farming. These factors give farmers in Kiambu a comparative advantage, as avocado cultivation requires relatively minimal inputs for success. Additionally, avocados offer better climatic resilience compared to traditional crops, as they can withstand moderate drought conditions.

However, as global climate change continues to impact agriculture, farmers have the opportunity to embrace climate adaptation programs for sustainable avocado farming. With a growing focus on climate change, farmers can benefit from initiatives that promote climate-smart agriculture. These programs provide resources and support for adopting drought-tolerant avocado varieties, water-efficient irrigation systems, and sustainable land management practices.

Avocado farming also has environmental and soil benefits. The crop lends itself well to agroforestry practices, where avocado trees can be inter-planted with other crops and trees. These trees contribute to soil conservation by reducing erosion, providing shade to protect other crops from wind, and helping promote biodiversity. Additionally, avocado trees act as carbon sinks, aligning farming practices with global sustainable development goals.

Microfinance institutions and commercial banks are increasingly offering affordable loans designed to meet the needs of horticultural farmers, providing avocado farmers with valuable financial support. Farmers organized into groups can also access grants and funding from international organizations that focus on supporting agri-business. The growth of microfinance institutions presents more opportunities for smallholder avocado farmers to secure credit and loans specifically tailored to their needs, enabling them to invest in high-quality seedlings, advanced irrigation systems, and other critical farming inputs.

When farmers are financially empowered, they can not only improve their avocado production but also diversify their farming activities. For example, dairy farming, which is highly profitable in Kiambu County, can provide additional income while supporting organic avocado farming through the availability of manure for soil fertility.

Avocado farming offers a promising avenue for employment creation, especially for the youth in Kiambu County. Young people can be encouraged to participate in the sector, helping to diversify employment opportunities across the various stages of the avocado value chain, from production to processing and marketing. The youth can contribute to tasks such as land preparation, planting, watering, pest control, pruning, and harvesting.

The growth of the avocado sector also creates opportunities in agro-processing, where young people can get involved in producing avocado oil, packaging for export, and other value-added products, fostering entrepreneurship and skill development. Additionally, the increasing integration of technology in avocado farming offers roles for tech-savvy youth, including digital marketing, data management, and operating agricultural machinery.

With the right training and resources, young people can also venture into related businesses such as supplying farm inputs, offering transport services, or acting as intermediaries between farmers and markets. These opportunities not only address unemployment but also enhance the efficiency and competitiveness of the avocado industry.