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Spaniards in the wider world: the role of education in the choice of destination country

Héctor Bellido
Héctor Bellido
, 
Miriam Marcén
Miriam Marcén
 e 
Marina Morales
Marina Morales
   | 14 giu 2021
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Pubblicato online: 14 giu 2021
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Accettato: 19 apr 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2021-0006
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© 2021 Héctor Bellido et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Figure 1

Notes: Dependent variable: languages (English, Spanish, and Others). Standard errors are robust. With respect to the sample, see the notes in Table 2. Countries are classified using the official or the most common language. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates English, “2” indicates Others, and “3” indicates Spanish. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variable: languages (English, Spanish, and Others). Standard errors are robust. With respect to the sample, see the notes in Table 2. Countries are classified using the official or the most common language. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates English, “2” indicates Others, and “3” indicates Spanish. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure 2

Notes: Dependent variables: languages and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A2. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe (English), “2” is for America (English), “3” represents Europe (Others), “4” corresponds to America (Others), and “5” means America (Spanish). UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A2. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe (English), “2” is for America (English), “3” represents Europe (Others), “4” corresponds to America (Others), and “5” means America (Spanish). UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure 3

Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, unemployment rate (UR) below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” stands for America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The numbers correspond to the outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, unemployment rate (UR) below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” stands for America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Figure A1

Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The sample consists of Spanish emigrants in Argentina 2001, Austria 2001, Bolivia 2001, Brazil 2000, Chile 2002, Colombia 2005, Costa Rica 2000, Cuba 2002, El Salvador 2007, Greece 2001, Ireland 2002, Mexico 2000, Nicaragua 2005, Panama 2000, Peru 2007, Portugal 2001, United States 2000, UK 1991, and Venezuela 2001. The dependent variable is a combination of the location of the destination countries, the official language (or the most common language), and the UR. This location is classified into the following categories: Europe and America. The language classification is as follows: English, Spanish, and Others. The UR is divided into two categories: above-average UR and below-average UR. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” indicates America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. Estimates are weighted. Standard errors are robust. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between the categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UR = unemployment rate. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.
Notes: Dependent variables: languages, unemployment level, and continent. This corresponds to Column 3 of Table A4. The sample consists of Spanish emigrants in Argentina 2001, Austria 2001, Bolivia 2001, Brazil 2000, Chile 2002, Colombia 2005, Costa Rica 2000, Cuba 2002, El Salvador 2007, Greece 2001, Ireland 2002, Mexico 2000, Nicaragua 2005, Panama 2000, Peru 2007, Portugal 2001, United States 2000, UK 1991, and Venezuela 2001. The dependent variable is a combination of the location of the destination countries, the official language (or the most common language), and the UR. This location is classified into the following categories: Europe and America. The language classification is as follows: English, Spanish, and Others. The UR is divided into two categories: above-average UR and below-average UR. The numbers correspond to the following outcome categories: “1” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “2” indicates Europe, UR below the average, and Others as the most common language; “3” indicates America, UR below the average, and English as the most common language; “4” corresponds to America, UR below the average, and Spanish as the most common language; “5” means Europe, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; “6” indicates America, UR above the average, and Others as the most common language; and “7” represents America, UR above the average, and Spanish as the most common language. The additive scale on the bottom axis measures the value of βi,m|n δ. The multiplicative scale on the top axis measures exp(βi,m|n)δ. Estimates are weighted. Standard errors are robust. The statistical significance is shown by drawing a line between the categories for which there is no significant coefficient at the 5% level. UR = unemployment rate. UnStd Coef means Unstandardized Coefficient and 0/1 means a dummy variable.

Location choice: destination countries classified by languages, URs, and continents

Variables 1 2 3
Secondary education completed
EU/LU/English–EU/LU/Others 15.571*** 9.662*** 9.595***
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/English 1.510 1.712* 1.701*
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish 1.364 1.667 1.555
EU/LU/English–EU/HU/Others 2.203* 2.431* 2.411 *
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Others 3.130*** 3.689*** 3.647***
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish 3.189*** 3.741*** 3.700***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/English 0.097*** 0.177*** 0.177***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/Spanish 0.088*** 0.173*** 0.162***
EU/LU/Others–EU/HU/Others 0.142*** 0.252*** 0.251***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Others 0.201*** 0.382*** 0.380***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 0.205*** 0.387*** 0.386***
AM/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish 0.903 0.974 0.914
AM/LU/English–EU/HU/Others 1.459 1.419 1.418
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Others 2.073*** 2.155*** 2.144 ***
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish 2.112*** 2.185*** 2.175***
AM/LU/Spanish–EU/HU/Others 1.615 1.458 1.550
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Others 2.295*** 2.213*** 2.345***
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Spanish 2.338*** 2.244*** 2.379***
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Others 1.421 1.518 1.513
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 1.447 1.539 1.535
AM/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 1.019 1.014 1.015
Some college/university education completed
EU/LU/English-EU/LU/Others 10.706*** 9.888 *** 9.912***
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/English 0.723 0.854 0.861
EU/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish 0.712 0.967 0.853
EU/LU/English–EU/HU/Others 1.677 1.911 1.923
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Others 1.926** 2.325** 2.361**
EU/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish 3.700*** 4.460*** 4.522***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/English 0.068*** 0.086*** 0.087***
EU/LU/Others–AM/LU/Spanish 0.067*** 0.098*** 0.086***
EU/LU/Others–EU/HU/Others 0.157*** 0.193*** 0.194***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Others 0.180*** 0.235*** 0.238***
EU/LU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 0.346*** 0.451*** 0.456***
AM/LU/English–AM/LU/Spanish 0.985 1.131 0.991
AM/LU/English–EU/HU/Others 2.320** 2.236** 2.235**
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Others 2.665*** 2.721*** 2.744***
AM/LU/English–AM/HU/Spanish 5.119 *** 5.219*** 5.254***
AM/LU/Spanish–EU/HU/Others 2.357 ** 1.976* 2.256**
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Others 2.707*** 2.405*** 2.770***
AM/LU/Spanish–AM/HU/Spanish 5.199*** 4.613*** 5.304***
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Others 1.148 1.217 1.228
EU/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 2.206** 2.334** 2.351**
AM/HU/Others–AM/HU/Spanish 1.921*** 1.918*** 1.915***
Year dummies No Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.159 0.529 0.581
Observations 54,275 54,275 54,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by language (dependent variable: English, Spanish, and Others)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Secondary education completed
English–Others 8.797*** 2.328 *** 2.862*** 2.328*** 2.881*** 2.328*** 2.117*** 2.328***
English–Spanish 2.027*** 1.396** 2.047*** 1.396** 2.100*** 1.396** 1.509*** 1.396**
Others–Spanish 0.230*** 0.600*** 0.715*** 0.600*** 0.729*** 0.600*** 0.713*** 0.600***
Some college/university completed
English–Others 11.937*** 2.752*** 4.127*** 2.752*** 4.159*** 2.752*** 2.628*** 2.752***
English–Spanish 3.680*** 1.548 *** 3.720*** 1.548*** 4.152*** 1.548*** 1.606*** 1.548***
Others–Spanish 0.308*** 0.563*** 0.901 0.563*** 0.998 0.563*** 0.611*** 0.563***
Year dummies No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.161 0.713 0.144 0.471 0.154 0.460 0.517 0.735
Observations 54,317 54,317 13,124 13,124 12,781 12,781 12,865 54,518

Robustness check: considering different subsamples varying the age of Spanish emigrants (dependent variable: English, Spanish, and Others)

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Secondary education completed
English–Others 8.797*** 2.328 *** 9.407*** 2.704*** 9.028*** 2.2033*** 9.930*** 2.089*** 1.444*** 3.174***
English–Spanish 2.027*** 1.396** 2.352*** 1.587*** 1.747*** 1.204 1.955*** 1.262 0.732*** 1.244
Others–Spanish 0.230*** 0.600*** 0.250*** 0.587*** 0.194*** 0.5463*** 0.197*** 0.604*** 0.507*** 0.392***
Some college/university education completed
English–Others 11.937*** 2.752*** 12.257*** 3.268*** 12.73*** 2.4242*** 14.727*** 2.276*** 8.223*** 4.229***
English–Spanish 3.680*** 1.548 *** 4.148*** 1.630*** 2.940*** 1.4963*** 3.404*** 1.705*** 1.509** 1.568**
Others–Spanish 0.308*** 0.563*** 0.338*** 0.499*** 0.231*** 0.6172*** 0.231*** 0.749** 0.184*** 0.371***
Year dummies No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.161 0.713 0.152 0.713 0.161 0.698 0.160 0.696 0.084 0.674
Observations 54,317 54,317 65,045 65,045 30,743 30,743 27,235 27,235 12,259 12,259

Analysis over time: decades 1960–2000 (dependent variable: languages – English, Spanish, and Others)

Decade 1960 1 2 Decade 1970 3 4
Secondary education completed
English–Others 16.073*** 17.345*** 10.797*** 10.744***
English–Spanish 4.734*** 3.257** 9.623*** 10.847***
Others–Spanish 0.295*** 0.188*** 0.891 1.010
Some college/university education completed
English–Others 14.586*** 15.379*** 10.240*** 10.180***
English–Spanish 4.752*** 1.626 10.505*** 10.406***
Others–Spanish 0.326*** 0.106*** 1.026 1.022
Year dummies No Yes No Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.078 0.546 0.052 0.178
Observations 8,803 8,803 24,226 24,226
Decade 1980 Decade 1990
Secondary education completed
English–Others 3.701*** 3.879*** 1.071 1.056
English–Spanish 5.469*** 6.050*** 1.473*** 1.533***
Others–Spanish 1.478*** 1.560*** 1.376*** 1.451***
Some college/university education completed
English–Others 4.175 *** 4.411*** 1.069 1.062
English–Spanish 7.312*** 7.992*** 1.598*** 1.816***
Others–Spanish 1.752*** 1.812*** 1.495*** 1.710 ***
Year dummies No Yes No Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.053 0.084 0.078 0.094
Observations 27,499 27,499 17,368 17,368
Decade 2000
Secondary education completed
English–Others 4.130*** 4.130***
English–Spanish 3.879*** 3.879***
Others–Spanish 0.939 0.939
Some college/university education completed
English–Others 4.599 *** 4.599 ***
English–Spanish 8.628*** 8.628***
Others–Spanish 1.876** 1.876**
Year dummies No Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.120 0.120
Observations 2,718 2,718

Summary statistics by destination country: countries sorted alphabetically

Country 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Age, years Males Secondary education completed College or more Married Employed Official/most common language Unemployment rate, % Continent Observations, n
Argentina 51.97 0.49 0.31 0.17 0.73 0.58 Spanish 18.3 America 3,372
Austria 38.80 0.37 0.28 0.34 0.37 0.73 German 3.6 Europe 132
Bolivia 41.06 0.56 0.32 0.64 0.47 0.64 Spanish 5.4 America 77
Brazil 50.44 0.58 0.27 0.36 0.80 0.65 Portuguese 9.5 America 737
Chile 41.65 0.57 0.24 0.69 0.69 0.70 Spanish 8.9 America 379
Colombia 42.15 0.60 0.12 0.85 0.62 0.76 Spanish 12.0 America 96
Costa Rica 42.55 0.57 0.21 0.67 0.64 0.70 Spanish 5.1 America 86
Cuba 50.36 0.45 0.40 0.33 0.67 0.55 Spanish 3.3 America 55
El Salvador 42.24 0.52 0.16 0.72 0.84 0.80 Spanish 6.3 America 25
France 47.01 0.47 0.12 0.21 0.66 0.74 French 8.8 Europe 41,193
Greece 39.87 0.22 0.31 0.50 0.72 0.54 Greek 10.2 Europe 68
Ireland 30.43 0.36 0.30 0.66 0.18 0.79 English 4.2 Europe 343
Mexico 43.65 0.59 0.30 0.51 0.82 0.70 Spanish 2.6 America 850
Nicaragua 41.56 0.44 0.26 0.70 0.67 0.78 Spanish 5.6 America 27
Panama 43.52 0.58 0.26 0.49 0.76 0.79 Spanish 13.5 America 96
Peru 42.42 0.61 0.22 0.74 0.57 0.57 Spanish 4.5 America 195
The Philippines 38.68 0.40 0.10 0.41 0.66 0.00 Filipino 11.2 Asia 19
Portugal 39.56 0.44 0.20 0.34 0.75 0.69 Portuguese 4.0 Europe 259
South Africa 47.07 0.57 0.60 0.21 0.79 0.65 English 25.4 Africa 23
The United States 38.80 0.48 0.23 0.66 0.66 0.73 English 4.0 America 3,248
Venezuela 48.53 0.53 0.34 0.29 0.76 0.66 Spanish 12.8 America 3,037
Mean 45.34 0.49 0.21 0.36 0.68 0.70 8.75
Standard deviation 9.69 0.50 0.41 0.48 0.47 0.46 4.47

Location choice: destination countries classified by languages and continents

Variables 1 2 3
Secondary education completed
Europe (English)–America (English) 1.491 1.660* 1.660*
Europe (English)–Europe (Others) 15.209*** 8.468*** 8.468***
Europe (English)–America (Others) 3.076*** 3.516*** 3.516***
Europe (English)–America (Spanish) 2.854*** 3.297*** 3.297***
America (English)–Europe (Others) 10.199*** 5.101*** 5.101***
America (English)–America (Others) 2.063*** 2.118*** 2.118***
America (English) –America (Spanish) 1.914*** 1.986*** 1.986***
Europe (Others)–America (Others) 0.202*** 0.415*** 0.415***
Europe (Others)–America (Spanish) 0.188*** 0.389*** 0.389***
America (Others)–America (Spanish) 0.928 0.938* 0.938
Some college/university education completed
Europe (English)–America (English) 0.700 0.815 0.815
Europe (English)–Europe (Others) 10.150*** 8.417*** 8.417***
Europe (English)–America (Others) 1.800** 2.118** 2.118**
Europe (English)–America (Spanish) 2.521*** 3.265*** 3.265***
America (English)–Europe (Others) 14.503*** 10.331*** 10.332***
America (English)–America (Others) 2.572*** 2.600*** 2.600***
America (English)–America (Spanish) 3.602*** 4.007*** 4.008***
Europe (Others)–America (Others) 0.177*** 0.252*** 0.252***
Europe (Others)–America (Spanish) 0.248*** 0.388*** 0.388***
America (Others)–America (Spanish) 1.401*** 1.541*** 1.541***
Year dummies No Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.161 0.570 0.632
Observations 54,275 54,275 54,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by URs and continents

Variables 1 2 3
Secondary education completed
Europe/LU–America/LU 0.099*** 0.255*** 0.255***
Europe/LU–Europe/HU 0.148*** 0.363*** 0.363***
Europe/LU–America/HU 0.209*** 0.548*** 0.548***
America/LU–Europe/HU 1.498 1.424 1.424
America/LU–America/HU 2.109*** 2.148*** 2.148***
Europe/HU–America/HU 1.407 1.508 1.508
Some college/university education completed
Europe/LU–America/LU 0.069*** 0.133*** 0.133***
Europe/LU–Europe/HU 0.161*** 0.292*** 0.292***
Europe/LU–America/HU 0.307 *** 0.590*** 0.590***
America/LU–Europe/HU 2.344** 2.189 ** 2.189**
America/LU–America/HU 4.479*** 4.425*** 4.425***
Europe/HU–America/HU 1.911* 2.022** 2.022**
Year dummies No Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.178 0.630 0.646
Observations 54,275 54,275 54,476

Location choice: destination countries classified by economic situation (dependent variables: high UR [HU], medium UR [MU], and low UR [LU])

Variables 1 2 3
Secondary education completed
LU–MU 3.783*** 1.014 1.014
LU–HU 1.505*** 1.571*** 1.571***
MU–HU 0.3978*** 1.549*** 1.549***
Some college/university completed
LU–MU 2.898*** 0.712** 0.712**
LU–HU 2.347*** 2.622*** 2.622***
MU–HU 0.810*** 3.683*** 3.683***
Year dummies No Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.078 0.373 0.389
Observations 54,317 54,317 54,518

Location choice: destination countries classified by continent (dependent variable: Europe, America, and Others)

Variables 1 2 3
Secondary education completed
Europe–America 0.168*** 0.413*** 0.413***
Europe–Others 0.139*** 0.333** 0.333**
America–Others 0.828 0.806 0.806
Some college/university completed
Europe–America 0.151*** 0.252*** 0.252***
Europe–Others 0.288** 0.457 0.457
America–Others 1.908 1.810 1.811
Year dummies No Yes Yes
McFadden's adjusted R2 0.134 0.823 0.834
Observations 54,317 54,317 54,518
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