Health-Affirming Everyday Landscapes in Sustainable City. Theories and Tools

The concept of an eco-city seems to include a place for nature due to a more ecological approach to the preservation of eco-systems and biodiversity (Nagoya Protocol) [37]. The additional issues are potentially contradictory needs: to construct means of access, pedestrian and cyclist paths, as well as to preserve the nature in natural state. Some areas need to be excluded from human access in order to prevent them from destruction and preserve biodiversity. However, the research evidence demonstrated that even viewing nature has a beneficial effect on our health [31, 38]. Foo Ah Fong [39] mentioned the traditional Japanese landscape strategy to enhance garden scenery by incorporating the surrounding landscape. For centuries this rule has been used in the Japanese Garden Art to design private gardens, public gardens and shrines. Agata Zachariasz [40] describes the phenomenon of shakkei (borrowed scenery), as a very important element of Japanese and Chinese garden’s composition, used to enlarge the garden space with visual connections to distant landscape (for example surrounding mountains) or neighboring elements of scenery (for example tree behind the fence).

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Miłosz Walerzak [41] writes that the visual connections with surrounding landscapes were the essence of naturalistic composition (for example in England but he also provides many examples from Poland), because „the variety of views is one of the most important factors deciding about the uniqness of a place”. Wojciechowski [42] notices that the process of sensory perception by human brain is based on additional information: knowledge, imagination, attitudes, individual and social standards and norms.

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Monika Trojanowska [43] has developed the Universal Pattern of design for therapeutic parks, based on literature and field research which includes the qualities relying to therapeutic landscapes and health affirming landscapes. It can be used as a helpful tool when designing new public park or revitalizing any green public space.

The concept of health-affirming landscapes goes into subtle areas of mental and spiritual healing. Contact with nature can stimulate physical and mental restoration. Simon Bell [8] wrote that particularly beautiful environments can arouse strong emotions and help us forget even for a short while about personal concerns. Any architectural and urban design that is creating a place of great beauty and calm is leading to health affirmation. Moughtin [44] confirms that “being at one with nature” is the foundation of health and wellbeing. Kaplans’ [45, 46] explained that the following natural settings provide restorative experience: “being away (a sense of removal or separation from attention demands), fascination (being readily engaged in the features of the place), extent (the perception that there is adequate space for varied experiences), and compatibility (feeling that the space supports one’s purposes or chosen activities)”. The first one – the feeling of being in the different world of nature is very difficult to achieve in parks surrounded by high multistorey buildings. However, we can observe that the designers strive to create smaller, more intimate spaces within those parks.

Fascination is captured and enhanced by features of scenery, intricate details of plants, meandering paths, or garden furniture. Extent can be related to open areas of lawns or water surface. Compatibility is closely connected to comprehensible design and rich sports infrastructure. As we can see, many features supporting the presence of nature can be found in public parks worldwide.

Anna Bengtsson and Patric Grahn have developed an outline of a Quality Evaluation Tool for healing gardens in healthcare settings [47]. Healing gardens in healthcare settings are a special kind of therapeutic landscapes. However, those qualities are easily applicable to everyday settings. The Quality Evaluation Tool can be used as a tool for every outdoor settings focused on mental and spiritual regeneration.

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Walkability and density are the two features most often mentioned in literature dedicated to urban sustainable design and health promotion. High density improves proximity to public services, green space and work places. Multi-functional dense urban blocks can help creating the feeling of safety and even lead to crime prevention with well-maintained public space. “To encourage people to walk or use bicycles to go to local services rather than drive cars to distant ones, it is necessary in urban design to improve both safety and environmental conditions [16]. It is worthy to mention that the views on urban density vary. Ross explains that “More important than density of people will be density and richness of activities (and thereby of opportunities) – the implication is for highly complex mixes of “land uses”. However: “lower density can facilitate flexibility in land use, ease of building change and reuse, localized food production, and greater ease in the generation of local employment” [16]. Neighborhoods with clearly defined public spaces and community facilities can provide opportunities for pedestrian activity, which increase likelihood of social interactions and can reduce feelings of isolation [11]. Multi-functional buildings should fulfill all inhabitants basic needs within walking distance from their apartments. Mixed-use development contributes to walkable, pleasant and healthy physical environment providing many opportunities for social contacts.

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The development of eco-neighborhoods is based on local governments and inhabitants desire to promote sustainability. The ecological awareness of citizens and their concern for the public common wealth is crucial for the development of eco-neighborhoods. That leads to the health-affirming atmosphere of social inclusion. Cliff Moughtin [44] explains that equality in social relationships is essential for healing environment. Strong social safety net is the best prevention against mental health problems. Many researchers talk about the importance of “meaningfulness” of environment for human health [45]. That concept is closely related to inhabitants participation in the planning and design of eco-neighborhoods. Corburn [11] explains that public participatory process offers planners numerous opportunities to promote social cohesion and build social networks, particularly between disparate groups (bridging social capital). That possibility is often overlooked. Corburn [11] writes that “healthy places ought to be understood as being doubly constructed; physically (the buildings, streets, parks, etc., often termed the “build environment”) and socially (through the assigning of meanings, interpretations, and narratives as well as the construction of networks, institutions and process to shape these meanings and outcomes)”. Thus, health-affirming places require placemaking – strengthening the connection between people and places they share.

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The empowerment to make our own decisions is related also to economic sustainability. Eco-neighborhoods are striving to achieve low environmental impact on nature, low energy use, equal distribution of income, and social justice. They are being implemented in various locations, but so far in rather developed countries. Souami [51] insists that there is no correlation between the development of eco-neighborhood and financial conditions on global markets. New eco-neighborhoods were constructed regardless of economic prosperity or insecurity of real estate markets. Foo Ah Fong [39] thinks that “sustainable development can be achieved by any nation-state, rich or poor” (…). Citing the example of Curitiba, he insists that a simple and humane strategy such as the needs of the people and the needs of the environment can transform the morale of people and physical makeup of the city.

The proximity to employment is one of the most important challenges of eco-neighborhoods. According to Ross [16] it “seems an inevitable conclusion that urban design must favor the local. Services to individuals and households (shopping, schooling, recreation, libraries, etc…) need to be as locally accessible as possible…Economic sustainability of a city is ultimately dependent on the creation of employment that is productive, humanly fulfilling, rewarding to the individual, and low in both impact and resource use”. The entrepreneurship and creativity of inhabitants are crucial for good-functioning of eco-neighborhoods. Other important reason why cities need to become health-affirming places is that “environmental quality is a major economic asset” [52]. A skilled workforce is more demanding, when it comes to choosing a place to live, and their presence is always a valuable asset for any neighborhood.

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Other important factor of sustainable development is peoples’ attitude to ecology of everyday life. The eco-neighborhoods provide opportunities for people to “think globally and act locally” and actively take responsibility for the future of our planet. That leads to a feeling of liberty and empowerment to decide about future. Niechwiej writes that “the modern man is constantly in danger posed by the products of his own intellect and resourcefulness (…) i.e. unsustainable management of natural resources. Such a situation is in contradiction of the Creator’s plan as He has appointed man to be the master of nature but not its ruthless exploiter” [53]. Pope John Paul II wrote “People are becoming increasingly aware of the limited amount of natural resources and the necessity to respect the laws of nature in the planning of further economic progress. The mere economic concept and mechanistic optimism, if they are not guided by moral and ethical standards, quickly turn into enslavement of man” (SRS 27–28 in: Sollicitudo Rei Socialis [54]. Described aspects refer only to chosen problems of creating health-affirming landscapes, which are related to urban design.