Empowerment Rights and Happiness Gap in Post-socialist Countries

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
transition	-0.795**	-0.728**	-0.785**	-0.758**	-0.748**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
civil society_gap		-0.156**
		(0.01)
religion_gap			-0.031**
			(0.01)
expression_gap				-0.083**
				(0.01)
move_gap					-0.043**
					(0.00)
age	-0.037**	-0.037**	-0.037**	-0.037**	-0.037**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
age2	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
female	0.043**	0.045**	0.044**	0.044**	0.044**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
divorced	-0.342**	-0.364**	-0.359**	-0.361**	-0.361**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
single	-0.233**	-0.226**	-0.224**	-0.226**	-0.227**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
widowed	-0.364**	-0.365**	-0.365**	-0.364**	-0.364**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
children	-0.013	-0.006	-0.005	-0.005	-0.004
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
number of observations			91057

The interdependence between de jure and de facto rights protection

	Lack of de jure rights protection	De jure rights protection exists
Lack of de facto rights protection	I	II
De facto rights protection exists	III	IV

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) - final result

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
transition	0.105 (0.04)	-0.110 (0.05)	0.041 (0.04)	-1.947** (0.11)
civil society_gap	-0.063* (0.02)
civil society_gap#transition	-1.371** (0.13)
religion_gap		0.042 (0.05)
religion_gap#transition		0.728** (0.06)
expression_gap			0.038 (0.03)
expression_gap#transition			2.001** (0.16)
move_gap				-0.011 (0.02)
move_gap#transition				-1.030** (0.05)
age	-0.033** (0.00)	-0.032** (0.00)	-0.033** (0.00)	-0.031** (0.00)
age2	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)
female	0.046** (0.01)	0.038** (0.01)	0.043** (0.01)	0.046** (0.01)
divorced	-0.289** (0.03)	-0.315** (0.03)	-0.319** (0.03)	-0.291** (0.03)
single	-0.204** (0.02)	-0.208** (0.02)	-0.164** (0.02)	-0.229** (0.02)
widowed	-0.180** (0.03)	-0.186** (0.03)	-0.195** (0.03)	-0.180** (0.03)
children	0.027 (0.02)	0.025 (0.02)	0.090** (0.02)	-0.015 (0.02)
good state of health	-0.383** (0.02)	-0.371** (0.02)	-0.384** (0.02)	-0.391** (0.02)
fair state of health	-0.763** (0.02)	-0.737** (0.02)	-0.755** (0.02)	-0.774** (0.02)
poor state of health	-1.220** (0.03)	-1.176** (0.03)	-1.218** (0.03)	-1.226** (0.03)
very poor state of health	-1.512**	-1.462**	-1.512**	-1.502**
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)
religiosity	0.169**	0.164**	0.137**	0.175**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
tertiary education	0.109**	0.055*	0.053*	0.083**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
secondary education	0.073**	0.038*	0.014	0.071**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
income	0.117**	0.118**	0.117**	0.119**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
income2	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
lngdppc	-0.049	-0.156**	0.433**	-0.419**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)
Inflation	-0.008**	-0.010**	0.000	-0.012**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
unemployment	-0.013**	-0.028**	0.008**	0.002
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
GDP growth	0.016**	-0.000	0.002	0.017**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
leftist ideology of government	-0.285**	-0.048	-0.224**	-0.208**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.03)
right ideology of government	-0.349**	-0.277**	-0.348**	-0.477**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)
democracy	0.014	0.021	0.073**	0.182**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
regulatory quality	-0.232**	-0.003	0.251**	-0.319**
	(0.06)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.06)
government effectiveness	0.309**	0.322**	0.167**	0.336**
	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.05) with time effects	(0.05)
number of observations			25095

The results of Kruskal-Wallis H test

	Mean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is included in the constitution	Mean value of SWB of respondents living in a country where freedom is not included in the constitution	χ2statistics	p-value
Freedom of assembly	6.32	6.77	158.758	0.0001
Freedom of religion	6.47	6.45	2.812	0.0935
Freedom of expression	6.29	6.79	158.758	0.0001
Freedom of movement	6.15	6.92	158.758	0.0001

The influence of de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
transition	-0.300** (0.04)	-0.290** (0.04)	-0.273** (0.04)	-0.164** (0.04)	-0.236** (0.04)	0.169** (0.05)
civil society_df		1.320**				1.346**
		(0.11)				(0.15)
religion_df			-0.134**			0.291**
			(0.02)			(0.03)
expression_df				-2.638**		-6.500**
				(0.17)		(0.30)
move_df					0.326**	0.327**
					(0.02)	(0.04)
Wave 4	0.279**	0.221**	0.382**	0.338**	0.316**	0.213**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Wave 5	0.245**	0.217**	0.349**	0.290**	0.317**	0.201**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Wave 6
age	-0.042**	-0.042**	-0.042**	-0.042**	-0.040**	-0.039**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
age2	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
female	0.024	0.026	0.022	0.021	0.027*	0.026*
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
divorced	-0.289**	-0.294**	-0.298**	-0.314**	-0.273**	-0.318**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
single	-0.198**	-0.194**	-0.184**	-0.185**	-0.241**	-0.243**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
widowed	-0.225**	-0.223**	-0.230**	-0.235**	-0.221**	-0.233**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
children	0.052**	0.070**	0.075**	0.079**	-0.020	-0.001
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
good state of health	-0.392**	-0.384**	-0.394**	-0.389**	-0.401**	-0.383**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
fair state of health	-0.769**	-0.756**	-0.766**	-0.761**	-0.778**	-0.751**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
poor state of health	-1.231**	-1.216**	-1.232**	-1.219**	-1.237**	-1.190**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
very poor state of health	-1.527**	-1.510**	-1.525**	-1.513**	-1.526**	-1.477**
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)
religiosity	0.159**	0.150**	0.153**	0.137**	0.172**	0.119**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
tertiary education	0.171**	0.178**	0.157**	0.116**	0.185**	0.087**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
secondary education	0.107**	0.117**	0.096**	0.051**	0.148**	0.059**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
income	0.159**	0.148**	0.154**	0.163**	0.159**	0.167**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
income2	-0.007**	-0.006**	-0.007**	-0.008**	-0.007**	-0.008**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
lngdppc	0.169**	0.104**	0.135**	0.507**	0.086*	0.903**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.06)
Inflation	-0.007**	-0.008**	-0.003**	0.004**	-0.007**	0.009**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
unemployment	0.002	-0.005**	0.007**	0.022**	0.005**	0.038**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
GDP growth	0.014**	0.019**	0.019**	0.013**	0.015**	0.007*
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
leftist ideology of government	-0.335**	-0.303**	-0.394**	-0.252**	-0.252**	0.134**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.04)
right ideology of government	-0.490**	-0.455**	-0.605**	-0.483**	-0.483**	-0.191**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.04)
democracy	0.047*	0.095**	0.180**	0.086**	0.214**	0.065
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.05)
regulatory quality	0.231**	-0.042	0.318**	0.519**	0.133**	0.335**
	(0.03)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.03)	(0.05)
number of observations				29397

The influence of de jure and de facto empowerment rights on the size of the happiness gap (ordered probit model)

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
transition	-0.306**	-0.302**	-0.149**	-0.321**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)
civil society_df	1.494**
	(0.13)
assembly_di	0.074**
	(0.03)
religion_df		-0.122**
		(0.02)
religion_di		0.445**
		(0.03)
expression_df			-2.714**
			(0.17)
expression_di			-0.109**
			(0.03)
move_df				0.321**
				(0.02)
move_di				-0.118**
				(0.02)
Wave 4	0.182**	0.217**	0.327**	0.342**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Wave 5	0.193**	0.289**	0.257**	0.318**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Wave 6
age	-0.042**	-0.042**	-0.041**	-0.040**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
age2	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
female	0.026	0.018	0.022	0.029*
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
divorced	-0.294**	-0.301**	-0.314**	-0.277**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
single	-0.191**	-0.208**	-0.190**	-0.234**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
widowed	-0.223**	-0.226**	-0.235**	-0.222**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
children	0.080**	0.058**	0.066**	-0.010
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
good state of health	-0.386**	-0.393**	-0.387**	-0.400**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
fair state of health	-0.759**	-0.760**	-0.759**	-0.776**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
poor state of health	-1.217**	-1.209**	-1.216**	-1.235**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
very poor state of health	-1.510**	-1.498**	-1.511**	-1.524**
	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)	(0.09)
religiosity	0.150**	0.158**	0.135**	0.164**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
tertiary education	0.187**	0.165**	0.104**	0.179**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
secondary education	0.120**	0.107**	0.049*	0.146**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
income	0.144**	0.145**	0.168**	0.159**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
income2	-0.006**	-0.006**	-0.008**	-0.007**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
lngdppc	0.099**	0.075*	0.538**	0.093*
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)
Inflation	-0.009**	-0.009**	0.003**	-0.007**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
unemployment	-0.006**	-0.010**	0.022**	0.004**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
GDP growth	0.021**	0.012**	0.013**	0.014**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
leftist ideology of government	-0.298**	-0.259**	-0.254**	-0.262**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
right ideology of government	-0.448**	-0.471**	-0.502**	-0.496**
	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
democracy	0.117**	0.034	0.057*	0.144**
	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.02)	(0.03)
regulatory quality	-0.088*	0.190**	0.507**	0.127**
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.03)
number of observations			29397

Mean values of the declared level of life-satisfaction by residents of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries

	Number of observations	Mean	χ2statistics	p-value
Post-socialist countries	51642	5.68	11908	0,0001
Non-post-socialist countries	65393	7.17

Corresponding measures of de jure and de facto rights’ protection

De jure right	De facto right
Freedom of assembly: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of assembly 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of assembly	Civil society participation index: - the extent to which major civil society organisations are routinely consulted by policymaker, how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries
Freedom of religion: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of religion 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of religion	Freedom of religion index: - indicator specifying the extent to which individuals and groups have the right to choose a religion, change their religion and practice that religion in private or in public as well as to proselytize peacefully without being subject to restrictions by public authorities
Freedom of expression: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of expression or speech 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of expression or speech	Freedom of expression index: - indicator specifying the extent to which the government respects the freedom of press and media, the freedom of ordinary people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression
Freedom from forced labour: 1 - constitution prohibits slavery, servitude or forced labour 0 - constitution does not prohibit slavery, servitude or forced labour	Freedom from forced labour index: - the extent to which adult citizens are free from servitude and other kinds of forced labour
Freedom of movement: 1 - constitution provides the freedom of movement 0 - constitution does not provide the freedom of movement	Freedom of movement : - the extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities

‘How much respect is there for individual human rights nowadays in this country?’ Comparison of the answers of respondents from post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (as a percentage of total answers)_ Own work on the basis of WVS (2014)_

	Post-socialist countries				Non-post-socialist countries
	1994–1998	1999–2004	2005–2009	2010–2014	1994–1998	1999–2004	2005–2009	2010–2014
There is a lot of respect for individual human rights	0.02	0.05	0.02	0.07	0.01	0.11	0.16	0.14
There is some respect	0.15	0.26	0.26	0.39	0.06	0.47	0.49	0.55
There is not much respect	0.26	0.43	0.43	0.34	0.06	0.33	0.19	0.26
There is no respect at all	0.14	0.26	0.12	0.10	0.00	0.07	0.02	0.03
Missing	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00
Not asked in survey	0.41	0.00	0.14	0.08	0.86	0.00	0.13	0.00
No answer	0.02	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.01	0.00
Don’t know	0.02	0.05	0.02	0.07	0.01	0.11	0.16	0.14

The influence of empowerment rights gap on the level of life satisfaction of inhabitants of post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model)

	Post-socialist	Non-post- socialist	Post-socialist	Non-post- socialist	Post-socialist	Non-post- socialist	Post-socialist	Non-post-socialist
civil society_gap	-0.120**	-0.224**
	(0.01)	(0.01)
religion_gap			-0.075**	-0.221**
			(0.01)	(0.01)
expression_gap					-0.019*	-0.191**
					(0.01)	(0.01)
move_gap							-0.012*	-0.160**
							(0.01)	(0.01)
age	-0.033**	-0.030**	-0.032**	-0.031**	-0.033**	-0.031**	-0.033**	-0.030**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
age2	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**	0.000**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
female	0.028**	0.073**	0.027**	0.073**	0.028**	0.072**	0.028**	0.073**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
divorced	-0.303**	-0.470**	-0.303**	-0.466**	-0.302**	-0.465**	-0.303**	-0.468**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
single	-0.085**	-0.378**	-0.080**	-0.382**	-0.081**	-0.385**	-0.082**	-0.383**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
widowed	-0.306**	-0.371**	-0.310**	-0.365**	-0.308**	-0.366**	-0.308**	-0.369**
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
children	-0.005	-0.005	-0.007	-0.004	-0.006	-0.003	-0.006	-0.001
	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.01)
number of observations	49472	41585	49472	41585	49472	41585	49472	41585

Description and sources of variables

Variable	Definition	Values	Source
life_satisfaction	respondent’s life satisfaction (‘All things considered, how satisfied are you with your life as a whole these days?’)	from 1 (satisfied) to 10 (dissatisfied)	WVS (2015)
female	respondent’s gender	0 – male, 1 – female	WVS (2015)
age	respondent’s age		WVS (2015)
age2	respondent’s age squared		WVS (2015)
income	monthly household income		WVS (2015)
income2	monthly household income squared		WVS (2015)
employment	respondent’s employment status	1 – self-employed, full-time employed, part-time employed, student; 0 - otherwise	WVS (2015)
married	respondent’s marital status	1 – married or living together with someone as married, 0 – otherwise	WVS (2015)
divorced	respondent’s marital status	1– divorced, 0 – otherwise	WVS (2015)
widowed	respondent’s marital status	1– widowed, 0 – otherwise	WVS (2015)
single	respondent’s marital status	1 – single, 0 – otherwise	WVS (2015)
health	respondent’s subjective assessment of the state of health	binary variables for the following categories of the state of health: very good, good, fair, poor, very poor	WVS (2015)
education	respondent’s highest educational level attained	binary variables for the following categories of the level of education: tertiary education, secondary education, basic education	WVS (2015)
religiosity	respondent’s religiosity	1 – a religious person, 0 – otherwise	WVS (2015)
lngdppc	GDP per capita in logarithm		VDem (2016)
inflation	inflation		VDem (2016)
GDP growth	GDP growth		VDem (2016)
unemployment	unemployment (% of labour force)		World Bank (2018)
government ideology	ideology of the chief’s executive party	binary variables for the following categories: leftist, right, centre	Database of Political Institutions (2012)
democracy	the extent to which an institutionalised democracy is present in a country	scale (1;2)	VDem (2016)
regulatory quality	an index including measures of the incidence of market unfriendly policies such as price controls or inadequate bank supervision, as well as perceptions of the burdens imposed by excessive regulation in areas such as foreign trade and business development	scale (-2; 2)	VDem (2016)
government effectiveness	the index envisaging the quality of public service provision, the quality of the bureaucracy, the competence of civil servants, the independence of the civil service from political pressures, and the credibility of the government’s commitment to policies	scale (-2; 2)	VDem (2016)
expression_df	the extent to which government respects press & media scale freedom, the freedom of ordered people to discuss political matters at home and in the public sphere, as well as the freedom of academic and cultural expression	(0;1)	VDem (2016)
civil society_df	The extent to which major civil society organisations scale are routinely consulted by policymaker; how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; the extent to which women are prevented from participating; and the extent to which legislative candidate nomination within party organization is highly decentralized or made through party primaries	(0;1)	VDem (2016)
religion_df	the extent to which citizens enjoy freedom of religion scale	(-3; 3)	VDem (2016)
move_df	the extent to which citizens are able to travel freely to and scale from the country and to emigrate without being subject to restrictions by public authorities	(-1; 3)	VDem (2016)

The influence of empowerment rights’ gap on the level of happiness gap between post-socialist and non-post-socialist countries (ordered probit model) – with additional individual, macroeconomic and institutional characteristics added

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)	(10)
transition	-0.309** (0.02)	-0.331** (0.02)	-0.324** (0.02)	-0.336** (0.02)	-0.343** (0.02)	-0.012* (0.04)	-0.004* (0.04)	-0.002* (0.04)	-0.008* (0.04)	-0.063* (0.04)
civil society_gap		-0.102** (0.01)					0.035 (0.02)
religion_gap			-0.069** (0.01)					-0.408** (0.02)
expression_gap				-0.088** (0.01)					0.027 (0.02)
move_gap					-0.123** (0.01)					-0.158** (0.02)
age	-0.036** (0.00)	-0.036** (0.00)	-0.037** (0.00)	-0.036** (0.00)	-0.036** (0.00)	-0.033** (0.00)	-0.033** (0.00)	-0.032** (0.00)	-0.033** (0.00)	-0.032** (0.00)
age2	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)	0.000** (0.00)
female	0.056** (0.01)	0.057** (0.01)	0.057** (0.01)	0.056** (0.01)	0.057** (0.01)	0.046** (0.01)	0.046** (0.01)	0.040** (0.01)	0.046** (0.01)	0.050** (0.01)
divorced	-0.280** (0.02)	-0.284** (0.02)	-0.282** (0.02)	-0.282** (0.02)	-0.283** (0.02)	-0.294** (0.03)	-0.294** (0.03)	-0.304** (0.03)	-0.294** (0.03)	-0.290** (0.03)
single	-0.164** (0.02)	-0.166** (0.02)	-0.165** (0.02)	-0.166** (0.02)	-0.169** (0.02)	-0.180** (0.02)	-0.180** (0.02)	-0.196** (0.02)	-0.179** (0.02)	-0.190** (0.02)
widowed	-0.225** (0.02)	-0.225** (0.02)	-0.224** (0.02)	-0.224** (0.02)	-0.224** (0.02)	-0.186** (0.03)	-0.186** (0.03)	-0.188** (0.03)	-0.186** (0.03)	-0.185** (0.03)
children	0.017 (0.01)	0.011 (0.01)	0.014 (0.01)	0.012 (0.01)	0.008 (0.01)	0.040* (0.02)	0.042* (0.02)	0.034 (0.02)	0.043* (0.02)	0.019 (0.02)
good state of health	-0.405** (0.01)	-0.398** (0.01)	-0.402** (0.01)	-0.401** (0.01)	-0.399** (0.01)	-0.383** (0.02)	-0.384** (0.02)	-0.381** (0.02)	-0.384** (0.02)	-0.383** (0.02)
fair state of health	-0.793** (0.01)	-0.784** (0.01)	-0.790** (0.01)	-0.788** (0.01)	-0.779** (0.01)	-0.766** (0.02)	-0.768** (0.02)	-0.757** (0.02)	-0.767** (0.02)	-0.760** (0.02)
poor state of health	-1.259** (0.02)	-1.250** (0.02)	-1.258** (0.02)	-1.253** (0.02)	-1.245** (0.02)	-1.229** (0.03)	-1.232** (0.03)	-1.209** (0.03)	-1.231** (0.03)	-1.224** (0.03)
very poor state of health	-1.658** (0.05)	-1.654** (0.05)	-1.655** (0.05)	-1.655** (0.05)	-1.639** (0.05)	-1.563** (0.09)	-1.565** (0.09)	-1.541** (0.09)	-1.566** (0.09)	-1.560** (0.09)
religiosity	0.168** (0.01)	0.172** (0.01)	0.172** (0.01)	0.173** (0.01)	0.170** (0.01)	0.169** (0.01)	0.169** (0.01)	0.166** (0.01)	0.169** (0.01)	0.168** (0.01)
tertiary education	0.100**	0.090**	0.098**	0.093**	0.091**	0.084**	0.086**	0.076**	0.085**	0.087**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
secondary education	0.063**	0.058**	0.061**	0.059**	0.065**	0.051**	0.050**	0.048*	0.050**	0.072**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)
income	0.111**	0.117**	0.113**	0.117**	0.115**	0.129**	0.129**	0.120**	0.128**	0.129**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
income2	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.006**	-0.006**	-0.005**	-0.006**	-0.006**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
lngdppc	0.333**	0.289**	0.321**	0.295**	0.235**	0.196**	0.197**	0.130**	0.198**	0.175**
	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Inflation	-0.000**	-0.000**	-0.000**	-0.000**	-0.000**	-0.011**	-0.010**	-0.013**	-0.010**	-0.012**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
unemployment	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.005**	-0.007**	-0.012**	-0.012**	-0.024**	-0.012**	-0.012**
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
GDP growth	0.011**	0.014**	0.013**	0.014**	0.016**	0.004	0.004	-0.004	0.004	0.003
	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
leftist ideology of government						-0.339** (0.03)	-0.332** (0.03)	-0.238** (0.03)	-0.336** (0.03)	-0.334** (0.03)
right ideology of government						-0.359** (0.04)	-0.351** (0.04)	-0.296** (0.04)	-0.352** (0.04)	-0.398** (0.04)
democracy						-0.066** (0.02)	-0.057** (0.02)	-0.104** (0.02)	-0.061** (0.02)	-0.088** (0.02)
regulatory quality						-0.084 (0.04)	-0.090* (0.04)	-0.145** (0.04)	-0.083 (0.04)	-0.123** (0.04)
government effectiveness						0.221** (0.03)	0.238** (0.04)	0.263** (0.03)	0.225** (0.04)	0.171** (0.04)
								with time effects
number of observations						25095

Countries included in the analyses

	Post-socialist countries	Developed non-post-socialist countries
1994–1998	Albania, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Bulgaria, Belarus, Czech Rep., Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro	Australia, Finland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United States
1999–2004	Albania, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Macedonia	Canada, Japan, South Korea, Spain, United States
2005–2009	Bulgaria, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Serbia and Montenegro	Australia, Canada, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Great Britain, United States
2010–2014	Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan	Australia, Cyprus, Germany, Japan, South Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, United States