Diptera Pests Occurring on Vegetable Crops in Poland

Host plants:

species of Brassica oleracea –

Brussels sprout (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera L.);

The Diptera species found on all species and botanical varieties of Brassica cultivated in Poland are listed in Table 1. They belong primarily to three families: Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae, and Agromyzidae.

Among the Anthomyiidae, the dominant species is Delia radicum (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Brooks 1951; Szwejda 1975, 1977, 1988, 2003). This species occurs in two or three generations per year, depending on climatic and soil conditions. This species has been noted as a pest since the beginning of the nineteenth century (Belke 1861). Delia radicum larvae damage the underground parts of infested plants (roots and root neck) and above-ground parts: petioles of lower leaves and generative parts. The larvae of the first generation damage the underground parts of all brassicas (mainly head cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi, and radishes), and the second and third generations damage the heads of Brussels sprouts and the lower leaves of Chinese and Savoy cabbage. In broccoli and cauliflower, the larvae burrow into the branches of the roses. Kale and red cabbage are less preferred (Szwejda 1975, 1980, 2003). Botanophila fugax larvae are abundant in maturing heads of Brussels sprouts. They often feed in corridors previously excavated by Delia radicum (Szwejda 1980, 2003). Anthomyiidae are common in neighboring countries (Dušek 1969; Łoginowa 1980; Crüger 1991). In the Czech Republic and Germany, Botanophila fugax was also mentioned as a pest of cauliflower roses (Dušek 1969; Crüger 1991).

Delia platura and the less numerous Delia florilega occur on late cultivars of Brassica. Their larvae drill corridors in the thicker veins of the lower leaves, e.g., head cabbage, Chinese cabbage, Savoy cabbage, heads of Brussels sprouts, and in the lower part of the thickening of the kohlrabi touching the ground (Szwejda 1974, 1979, 2003; Beiger 2001). Another species, Delia floralis, was abundant in national agrocenoses in the 1920s and 1930s (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938). It is common in neighboring countries (Dušek 1969; Łoginowa 1980; Crüger 1991) and in the Scandinavian countries (Rygg & Sömme 1972; Jørgensen 1976; Havukkala & Virtanen 1985).

Species of the family Cecidomyiidae are common. The most numerous is Contarinia nasturtii (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Szwejda 1985). Its larvae damage the heart leaves of cabbage, destroying the growth cone and seed shoots. Damaged shoots, e.g., cauliflower and head cabbage, are twisted, and the flower buds dry up. On the other hand, kohlrabi and rutabaga have a distorted and cracked lower part of the stem, which is an edible thickening (Szwejda 1985; Szadziewski 1999). Damage at an economic level to seed production, mainly head cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and rutabaga, is caused by Dasineura napi – the larvae of this species damage pods and seeds. As a result of sucking the sap from the walls, the pods become distorted, dry out, and break prematurely (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Szwejda 1985; Szadziewski 1999). It causes the most significant damage to radish, cauliflower, and cabbage (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Szwejda 1985; Szadziewski 1999). Less numerous is Gephyraulus raphanistri. Its larvae damage flower buds to an extent that prevents the formation of pods. On horseradish plantations, similar damage is caused by Dasineura armoraciae (Szadziewski 1999), also in neighboring countries (Łoginowa 1980; Rygg & Brække 1980).

There are also numerous species from the family Agromyzidae. Phytomyza rufipes is common. Its larval feeding results in leaf mines, primarily broccoli, cauliflower, kohlrabi, Chinese cabbage, swede, and turnip (Szwejda 1985). Two other species are constantly present in cruciferous vegetables: Liriomyza strigata and Phytomyza horticola (Ruszkowski 1933; Szwejda 1974, 2003). Their larvae mine the leaf blade of younger leaves (Beiger 1989, 2001). The listed species of Agromyzidae are also common in neighboring countries (Łoginowa 1980; Roháček & Máca 1982; Crüger 1991).

In addition to phytophages, species with a different trophic structure occur on cruciferous vegetables. These are: Drosophila busckii, Drosophila funebris, Drosophila limbata, Scaptomyza graminum, Scaptomyza pallida (Drosophilidae), Fannia canicularis, Fannia scalaris (Fanniidae), Tephrochlamys tarsalis (Heleomyzidae), and Muscina levida (Muscidae) (Sznabl 1881; Bobek 1890; Szwejda 1980, 2003). The larvae of these species inhabit damaged parts of plants, accelerating the rotting processes caused, e.g., by infecting tissues with pathogens, mainly of bacterial and fungal origin. Most occur in damaged leaves and heads of Brussels sprouts, white, Chinese, and Savoy cabbage. The larvae mainly feed in corridors previously excavated by phytophagous species (Niswonger 1911; Szwejda 1974, 1980). In the final period of vegetation of cruciferous vegetables, species from the families Drosophilidae, Heleomyzidae, Fanniidae, and Muscidae accounted for over 55% of the total biomass of identified phytophagous Diptera larvae (Szwejda 1974, 1980, 1988, 2003). Phaonia trimaculata larvae are often found in tissues previously damaged by pests. They lead a predatory lifestyle, attacking the larvae of other species of flies. (Brooks 1951; Szwejda 1974, 1979, 2003).

These phyto- and saprophagous species are also common on Brassica crops in neighboring countries (Tischler 1965; Łoginowa 1980; Roháček & Máca 1982; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

chives (Allium schoenoprasum L.);

On Polish lands, the tradition of growing Amaryllidaceae (onion and garlic) dates back to the sixteenth century. Hence, they are inhabited by numerous polyphagous dipterofauna belonging to nine families. In addition to phytophagous species, these include copro-, necro-, and saprophages that penetrate the tissues of previously damaged plants, accelerating the processes of rotting and plant decomposition (Table 2).

In Poland, in all onion-growing regions, the leading pest is Delia antiqua (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Szwejda 1982, 2003; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2009). The first report on its harmfulness comes from the mid-nineteenth century (Belke 1861). In Poland, this species occurs in two generations per year. Apart from onion and its varieties, the larvae damage garlic and leek, and to a lesser extent, chives (Szwejda 1988; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2009). The decline of the second generation is mainly caused by predatory beetles from the Staphylinidae and Carabidae families (Szwejda 1988, 1996).

Of the remaining Anthomyiidae, there are two species: Delia platura and the less numerous Delia florilega (Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Szwejda 2003). Second-generation larvae of both species feed between onion scales, in garlic, and in the lower part of the leek. They constitute, on average, 20% of all Delia sp. species occurring on the discussed crops (Szwejda 1988, 2003). On garlic and onion cultivated in the autumn–spring cycle since the 1970s, Suillia lurida caused significant losses in terms of profitability (Szwejda 1988). In the spring, they drill holes in the middle leaf, preventing the formation of garlic cloves and onion heads. Since the 1950s, this species has moved from southern Europe, e.g., Bulgaria through Romania, Hungary, Ukraine, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic to Poland (Nikolova 1959; Szwejda 1998a). In the nineteenth century, this species was already identified in Poland on wild garlic in nonagricultural environments (Siła-Nowicki 1873).

Species of the family Agromyzidae are common. In the early 1990s, significant economic losses were recorded in leek crops when a gradational occurrence of Phytomyza gymnostoma was recorded in the regions of south-eastern Poland: Leżajsk, Rzeszów, Kraków (Kuźma 1995; Sionek 1998, 2001). In later years, the range of its occurrence covered the central part of the country (Szwejda 1998b). In the early spring period, the first generation of this species damages onions and garlic from autumn planting. On the other hand, leek and chives are damaged in the summer by the next generation (Sionek 2001). Other leaf miner species include Liriomyza cepae and Phytomyza albiceps. Their larvae mine onion leaves and leek (Beiger 2001). They were recorded on many other crop species (Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2007).

Eumerus strigata (Syrphidae) is abundant in the final phase of onion growth. Its larvae take over plants previously damaged by Delia antiqua larvae, deepening the processes of their decay (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Szwejda 1998a, 2003; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2007). A related species, Merodon equestris, occurs sporadically, and its larvae damage onions and garlic (Ogijewicz 1938; Szwejda 1988).

Larvae of Drosophila busckii (Drosophilidae) were often found between the scales of ripening onions (bulbs) and in seeds stored in poorly ventilated storage rooms (Szwejda 1998a, 2003). It is a polyphagous species found on many other crops. Its larvae feed on rotting and fermenting tissues of many crops (Szwejda 2003). Locally, there is a fly from the Ephydridae family, Hydrellia griseola, whose larvae drill short mines in the leaves of onions and leeks (Beiger 2001). This species is often found in moist, grassy environments (Beiger 2001; Zatwarnicki & Kunderak 2007).

At the end of the growing season, after the first year of cultivation, damaged, rotting parts of onions (bulbs), garlic cloves, and the lower part of the leek are infested with numerous copro-, necro-, and saprophagous species. They accounted for over 40% of all flies inhabiting these crops throughout the growing season. The most numerous are Fannia canicularis, Fannia scalaris, Muscina stabulans, Muscina levida (Szwejda 2003), and Elachiptera cornuta (Szwejda 1988, 2003).

The phyto- and saprophagous species are common on other crops (Tischler 1965; Osmołowki 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

eggplant (Solanum melongena L.);

Over 90% of eggplant, tomato, and pepper plantations are grown in unheated plastic tunnels. They are dominated by species from the families Agromyzidae and Drosophilidae (Table 3).

The larvae of all species of Agromyzidae mine the leaves, hollowing out winding corridors in them. More than 10 larvae can feed on one leaf. Severely infected leaves die and wither (Macias & Szwejda 2001). In open field cultivation, Agromyzidae do not pose a threat, unlike crops under cover, where they are obligatorily combated. The dominant species is Liriomyza bryoniae, whose number exceeds 50% of all recorded Agromyzidae crops. Ripening, cracked, or damaged tomato fruits are often infested with Drosophilidae larvae. Drosophila busckii dominates. Drosophila funebris occurs sporadically (Szwejda 1980; Szwejda & Rogowska 2011). Their larvae live in rotting and fermenting fruits carrying bacterial, fungal, or viral origin.

The described species are also common in neighboring countries (Tischler 1965; Osmołowski 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.);

For years, the greatest threat has been caused by flies belonging to two families: Anthomyiidae and Agromyzidae (Table 4).

Delia platura and Delia florilega, two species of Anthomyiidae, cause the greatest damage to cucumber and pumpkin plantations (Balachowski & Mesnil 1936; Hennig 1953; Dušek 1969; Szwejda 1974, 2011). The melon is damaged occasionally, with Delia platura as dominant. Both species belong to polyphagous species which, apart from Cucurbitaceae, damage many other crops, e.g., bean, cabbage, onion, peas, celery, sunflower seeds, and asparagus (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Studziński et al. 1981; Szwejda 1985, 1999, 2003). They occur in three generations per year, but the greatest damage is caused by the first generation, whose larvae feed on germinating seeds and in the subcotyledons of emerging plants. In the autumn, second- and third-generation larvae feed on damaged and rotting tissues of various crops (Szwejda 2015).

The most numerous species of Agromyzidae are Liriomyza bryoniae and Phytomyza albiceps (Ruszkowski 1933; Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Beiger 2001). They drill corridors in the leaf blades of plants all over the plant.

The described species are also common in neighboring countries (Balachowski & Mesnil 1936; Tischler 1965; Osmołowski 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

celery (Apium graveolens L.);

The tradition of growing celeriac (Apiaceae) dates back to the sixteenth century. They have long been host plants to many pests, including the Diptera: Cecidomyiidae, Psilidae (rust flies), Tephritidae, and Agromyzidae (Table 5).

The leading pests of carrots, parsnips, and celery include Chamaepsila rosae (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2007). As a pest causing significant damage to carrots in Poland, it was already described in the nineteenth century (Belke 1861). It prefers carrots as a host plant (Szwejda 1999, 2001). In permanent areas of celery vegetable cultivation, Chamaepsila rosae rarely migrates to other areas of agrocenoses because its development is related to the place of settlement. Imagines stay all their lives in clusters with perennial vegetation surrounding the plantation, where females leave only to lay eggs (Ellis & Ester 1999). The larvae of the first generation damage the emerging seedlings and young plants (up to the three- to four-leaf stage), and the second-generation larvae drill corridors in the roots of carrots and other Apiaceae (Szwejda 2001, 2015).

Euleia heraclei causes the most significant damage to celery crops. The larvae are biting cake faces in the leaves. With a massive pest occurrence, heavily damaged, over 50% of the leaf surface turns brown and dries up (Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Nawrot 2008). This species also occasionally damages parsley, parsnips, and dill (Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Beiger 2001).

Diptera from the Agromyzidae family are common on all celeriac vegetables. The dominant species is Phytomyza albiceps, whose larvae drill winding corridors in the leaves. Other species cause similar damage: Liriomyza bryoniae, Liriomyza strigata, Phytomyza horticola, Phytomyza mylini, and Napomyza lateralis (Beiger 2001).

Significant damage is caused by species from the family Cecidomyiidae on seed plantations of carrot, parsley, parsnip, and dill, (Szadziewski 1999; Nawrot 2008). Kiefferia pericarpiicola dominates. Females of this species lay eggs during flowering of the umbels. As a result of the feeding of the larvae, swollen spherical galls are formed, which prevent the formation of the seeds. The umbels are infested with Lasioptera carophila and Napomyza lateralis larvae (Szadziewski 1999). The described species are also common in neighboring countries (Tischler 1965; Berim 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

broad bean (Vicia faba L.);

Diptera belonging to three families, Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae (gall gnats), and Agromyzidae, are important as leguminous vegetables (Table 6).

Two species of Anthomyiidae dominate: Delia platura and less numerous Delia florilega (Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Szwejda 1985, 2002; Wnuk 1994). The larvae of the first generation (out of three occurring in a year) damage the germinating seeds and subcotyledons, mainly beans, in which they drill galleries. Peas grown on soils with undecomposed organic fertilizer may be massively damaged by Delia platura larvae during emergence (Szwejda 2002). In the case of broad beans and lentils, both species occur sporadically. Anthomyiidae are among the most dangerous pests of beans and peas in other countries, e.g., France (Balachowsky & Mesnil 1936), Germany (Hennig 1953; Tischler 1965), the Czech Republic (Duśek 1969), Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia (Głuszczenko 1980), as well as in the USA (Kim & Eckenrode 1987).

Contarinia pisi (Cecidomyiidae) causes the greatest damage to peas during flowering (Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Wnuk 1994; Szadziewski 1999). The larvae of this species damage flower buds, flowers, and top parts of plants. Controlled plants are deformed and do not form pods. This species is also sporadically found on broad beans (Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985).

Species from the Agromyzidae family are common on field beans and peas. Their larvae burrow into the leaves and pods. In all areas of broad bean and pea cultivation, Liriomyza pisivora, Liriomyza strigata, and Phytomyza albiceps are most common (Studziński et al. 1981; Wnuk 1994; Szwejda 1998a; Beiger 2001; Nawrot 2008). The mentioned species of Cecidomyiidae and Agromyzidae are common in neighboring countries (Głuszczenko 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.);

Diptera of the Agromyzidae and Anthomyiidae family are common on lettuce and chicory (Table 7).

Liriomyza strigata (Agromyzidae) was the most common on lettuce and chicory. Their larvae mine the leaves to the extent that they die (Beiger 2001). The greatest threat to lettuce plantations is Botanophila gnava (Anthomyiidae) (Studziński et al. 1981; Szwejda 1988). The larvae feed inside the seed heads and eat the seeds. In the 1970s, yield losses on unprotected plantations in central and southwestern Poland amounted to 50% of the harvest. In the Czech Republic, this decrease reached 90% (Szwejda 1985). In recent years, this species has occurred sporadically.

Host plants: –

red beet (Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris L.);

For years, red beet and spinach have been dominated by species belonging to three families: Agromyzidae, Drosophilidae, and Anthomyiidae (Table 8).

The dominant Anthomyiidae are Pegomya hyoscyami and the locally occurring Pegomya betae (Hurej 1988; Górski et al. 2010). They damage the leaves by chewing the crumb between the upper and lower cuticles, forming whitish spots forming on the leaf blade. For many years, both species were considered one taxon (Ruszkowski 1925, 1933, 1960; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Ogijewicz 1938; Hennig 1953; Pietrucha 1980). However, they were described in France as separate species (D’Aguilar & Missonnier 1957). Another species, Pegomya conformis, requires explanation. Ruszkowski (1937) identifies this species with Pegomya hyoscyami. However, the Polish Fauna list lists it as a separate species (Kaczorowska 2007).

Agromyzidae are common, the larvae of which drill galleries in the leaf blade. The most numerous are Liriomyza bryoniae and Liriomyza strigata (Studziński et al. 1981; Łabanowski 2000). The leaves of Scaptomyza graminum (Beiger 2001) are similar.

The described species also occur in countries bordering Poland (Pietrucha 1980; Benada et al. 1984; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: –

rhubarb (Rheum rhaponticum (L.);

On rhubarb and sorrel, Anthomyiidae species Pegomya bicolor and Pegomya solennis occur in small populations (Beiger 2001). Their larvae drilled short corridors in the leaf blade (Crüger 1991). On sorrel, two species of Cecidomyiidae were found: Contarinia rumicis, whose larvae damage flower buds, and Jaapiella rubicundula larvae, damaging inflorescences (Szadziewski 1999) (Table 9).

Host plant: asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.)

Diptera belonging to four families were found on asparagus: Cecidomyiidae, Tephritidae, Agromyzidae, and Anthomyiidae (Table 10).

Plioreocepta poeciloptera (Tephritidae), which causes the greatest damage to asparagus plantations in Poland, is systematically present in all areas of cultivation (Ruszkowski 1933, 1937; Ruszkowski et al. 1935; Narkiewicz-Jodko 1985; Szwejda 2002, 2011). Its larvae dig galleries along the entire length of the protrusions coming from the ground. The damaged shoot is deformed, twisting in the shape of a pastoral. This species, at the level of threat, also occurs on asparagus in other countries, e.g., the Netherlands (Nijveldt 1957), France (Schvester 1963), Hungary (Bodor 1965), and Germany (Hassan 1970; Crüger 1991).

In the 1990s, national plantations were threatened by Delia platura (Anthomyiidae), which was destroyed by emerging asparagus bracts (Szwejda 1999). The larvae feeding resulted in strongly distorted and twisted shoots. Delia platura females lay their eggs in soil rich in organic matter. Only the larvae of the first generation (out of three occurring during the year) are pests. In the areas of asparagus cultivation with decomposed organic manure, this problem did not occur (Szwejda 2011).

Two species of Agromyzidae occur locally but in small numbers: Ophiomyia simplex, whose larvae dig shallow galleries under the skin in the lower part of the shoot, and Ptochomyza asparagi larvae mining coniferous asparagus leaves (Beiger 2001; Szwejda 2002). The generative parts damage the larvae of Contarinia florum (Cecidomyiidae). Their feeding causes deformation of flower buds (Szadziewski 1999).

This species is a known pest of asparagus, e.g., on plantations in Hungary (Bodor 1965), France (Roussie 1972), Czech (Bartoš 1968), and Germany (Hassan 1970).

Host plant: sweet corn (Zea mays var. saccharata Kcke.)

Diptera have been among the leading pests of corn for years. The greatest threat are species from the families Chloropidae, Agromyzidae, and Anthomyiidae (Table 11).

For years, Oscinella frit (Chloropidae) has been causing the greatest damage in all areas of sweet and fodder corn cultivation (Kania 1962; Gołębiewska 1997; Mrówczyński et al. 2007; Bereś & Pruszyński 2008). This species was known as a pest in the nineteenth century (Sznabl 1881). In the 1920s and 1930s, Oscinella frit was a leading pest of cereals, often causing damage to over 50% of crops (Ruszkowski 1933; Prüffer 1937; Ogijewicz 1938). At that time, the cereal crop only locally occurred on corn crops. Only since the beginning of the 1950s have such significant yield losses been recorded that they threatened the profitability of corn cultivation (Kania 1962). The course of the weather, characterized by low air temperature and frequent precipitation in the spring, significantly impacts its numbers (Bereś et al. 2007; Mrówczyński et al. 2007). Oscinella frit occurs in three generations per year. The biggest threat is the first generation. The larvae of this generation take over the plants when the leaves are rolled up in a tubular manner, biting holes in them. Damaged plants form side shoots, on which deformed panicles and cobs are formed (Kania 1962). A related species, Oscinella pusilla, damages plants similarly but occurs sporadically (Gołębiowska 1997).

Elachiptera cornuta (Chloropidae) is also common; the larvae feed on the rotting parts of the corn, mainly in the vaginal leaves of the cobs, carrying pathogenic microorganisms. Its larvae are often found in places damaged by Oscinella frit (Kania 1962). Elachiptera cornuta is a saprophagous species found in rotting plant parts of many crops, e.g., in cruciferous and bulbous vegetables (Szwejda 1988, 2003).

The importance of Agromyzidae as corn pests is increasing (Bereś & Pruszyński 2008). Cerodontha incisa larvae mine leaves (Kania 1962; Beiger 2001). Most damaged plants are found along the edges of the plantation, in the vicinity of balks and midfield afforestation (Kania 1962). Another leaf-mining species is less numerous, Pseudonapomyza atra (Beiger 2001).

Corn is also a host plant for species from the Anthomyiidae family (Ruszkowski 1933; Ruszkowski et al. 1935). In recent years, an increasing threat from Delia platura larvae has been found (Boroń & Mrówczyński 2005; Mrówczyński et al. 2007; Bereś & Pruszyński 2008). Of the three generations occurring during the year, the first generation is essential because it damages germinating seeds and the emergence of corn (Bereś 2011).

The described dates from the Chloropidae, Agromyzidae, and Anthomyiidae families are common in developing countries, including Poland (Tischler 1965; Szapiro 1980; Crüger 1991).

Host plants: all vegetables

The root zone of agricultural plants, including vegetables, is inhabited mainly by flies from the Bibionidae and Tipulidae families (Czwalina 1893; Ruszkowski 1933, 1937; Opyrchałowa 1976; Mikołajczyk 1981; Mrówczyński et al. 2007; Nawrot 2008; Sądej et al. 2008). In Poland, 19 species from the Bibionidae family (Mikołajczyk 1981, 2007) and 87 from the Tipulidae family have been found (Skibińska & Chudzicka 2007). Diptera occurring on underground parts of vegetable plants are presented in Table 12.