An Enkf-Based Scheme for Snow Multivariable Data Assimilation at an Alpine Site

Anderson, E.A, 1976. A point of energy and mass balance model of snow cover. NOAA Tech. Rep. NWS, 19, 150 p.Search in Google Scholar

Andreadis, K.M., Lettenmaier, D.P., 2005. Assimilating remotely sensed snow observations into a macroscale hydrology model. Advances in Water Resources, 29.6, 872-886.10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.08.004Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Avanzi, F., De Michele, C., Morin, S., Carmagnola, C.M., Ghezzi, A., Lejeune, Y., 2016. Model complexity and data requirements in snow hydrology: seeking a balance in practical applications. Hydrol. Process., 30, 2106-2118.10.1002/hyp.10782Search in Google Scholar

Balsamo, G., Albergel, C., Beljaars, A., Boussetta, S., Brun, E., Cloke, H., Dee, D., Dutra, E., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Pappenberger, F., de Rosnay, P., Stockdale, T., Vitart, F., 2015. ERA-Interim/Land: a global land surface reanalysis data set. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 19, 1, 389-407.10.5194/hess-19-389-2015Search in Google Scholar

Barnett, T.P., Adam, J.C., Lettenmaier, D.P., 2005. Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snowdominated regions. Nature, 438, 7066, 303-309.10.1038/nature04141Search in Google Scholar

Bartelt, P., Lehning, M., 2002. A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss avalanche warning: Part I: numerical model. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 35, 3, 123-145.10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00074-5Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Boni, G., Castelli, F., Gabellani, S., Machiavello, G., Rudari, R., 2010. Assimilation of MODIS snow cover and real time snow depth point data in a snow dynamic model. In: Proc. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). IEEE International, pp. 1788-1791.10.1109/IGARSS.2010.5648989Search in Google Scholar

Boone, A., Etchevers, P., 2001. An intercomparison of three snow schemes of varying complexity coupled to the same land surface model: Local-scale evaluation at an Alpine site. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 2, 4, 374-394.10.1175/1525-7541(2001)002<0374:AIOTSS>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Boone, A., Habets, F., Noilhan, J., Clark, D., Dirmeyer, P., Fox, S., Gusev, Y., Haddeland, I., Koster, R., Lohmann, D., Mahanama, S., Mitchell, K., Nasonova, O., Niu, G.-Y., Pitman, A., Polcher,J., Shmakin, A. B., Tanaka, K., van den Hurk, B., Vérant, S., Verseghy, D., Viterbo, P., Yang, Z.-L., 2004. The Rhone-aggregation land surface scheme intercomparison project: An overview. Journal of Climate, 17, 1, 187-208.10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<0187:TRLSSI>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Bowling, L.C., Lettenmaier, D.P., Nijssen, B., Graham, L.P., Clark, D.B., El Maayar, M., Essery, R., Goers, S., Gusev, Y.M., Habets, F., van den Hurk, B., Jin, J., Kahan, D., Lohmann, D., Ma, X., Mahanama, S., Mocko, D., Nasonova, O., Niu, G., Samuelsson, P., Shmakin, A.B., Takata, K., Verseghy, D., Viterbo, P., Xia, Y., Xue, Y., Tang, Z., 2003. Simulation of high-latitude hydrological processes in the Torne-Kalix basin: PILPS Phase 2 (e): 1: Experiment description and summary intercomparisons. Global and Planetary Change, 38, 1, 1-30.10.1016/S0921-8181(03)00003-1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Brasnett, B., 1999. A global analysis of snow depth for numerical weather prediction. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 38, 6, 726-740.10.1175/1520-0450(1999)038<0726:AGAOSD>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Brocca, L., Moramarco, T., Melone, F., Wagner, W., Hasenauer, S., Hahn, S., 2012. Assimilation of surface-and root-zone ASCAT soil moisture products into rainfall-runoff modeling. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 50, 7, 2542-2555.10.1109/TGRS.2011.2177468Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Brun, E., Martin, Ε., Simon, V., Gendre, C., Coleou, C., 1989. An energy and mass model of snow cover suitable for operational avalanche forecasting. Journal of Glaciology, 35, 121, 333-342.10.3189/S0022143000009254Search in Google Scholar

Caparrini, F., Castelli, F., Entekhabi, D., 2004. Estimation of surface turbulent fluxes through assimilation of radiometric surface temperature sequences. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 5, 1, 145-159.10.1175/1525-7541(2004)005<0145:EOSTFT>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Charrois, L., Cosme, E., Dumont, M., Lafaysse, M., Morin, S., Libois, Q., Picard, G., 2016. On the assimilation of optical reflectances and snow depth observations into a detailed snowpack model. The Cryosphere, 10, 1021-1038. http://doi.org/10.5194/tc-10-1021-2016.10.5194/tc-10-1021-2016Search in Google Scholar

Chen, F., Crow, W.T., Starks, P.J., Moriasi, D.N., 2011. Improving hydrologic predictions of a catchment model via assimilation of surface soil moisture. Advances in Water Resources, 34, 4, 526-536.10.1016/j.advwatres.2011.01.011Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Clark, M.P., Hay, L.E., 2004. Use of medium-range numerical weather prediction model output to produce forecasts of stream-flow. J. Hydrometeorol., 5, 15-32.10.1175/1525-7541(2004)005<0015:UOMNWP>2.0.CO;2Search in Google Scholar

Clark, M.P., Slater, A.G., Barrett, A.P., Hay, L.E., McCabe, G.J., Rajagopalan, B., Leavesley, G.H., 2006. Assimilation of snow covered area information into hydrologic and landsurface models. Advances in Water Resources, 29, 8, 1209-1221.10.1016/j.advwatres.2005.10.001Search in Google Scholar

Cressman, G.P., 1959. An operational objective analysis system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 87, 10, 367-374.10.1175/1520-0493(1959)087<0367:AOOAS>2.0.CO;2Search in Google Scholar

Dee, D.P., Uppala, S.M., Simmons, A.J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M.A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A.C.M., van de Berg, L. Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A.J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S.B., Hersbach, H., Hòlm, E.V., Isaksen, L., Kållberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A.P., Monge-Sanz, B.M., Morcrette, J.- J. , Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., deRosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., Vitart, F., 2011. The ERA‐Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 137, 656, 553-597.10.1002/qj.828Search in Google Scholar

De Lannoy, G.J.M., Reichle, R.H., Arsenault, K.R., Houser, P.R., Kumar, S., Verhoest, N.E.C., Pauwels, V.R.N., 2012. Multiscale assimilation of advanced microwave scanning radiometer- EOS snow water equivalent and moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer snow cover fraction observations in northern Colorado. Water Resour. Res., 48, W01522. DOI: 10.1029/2011WR010588.10.1029/2011WR010588Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Dong, J., Walker, J.P., Houser, P.R., Sun, C., 2007. Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer snow water equivalent assimilation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 112, D7.10.1029/2006JD007209Search in Google Scholar

Douville, H., Royer, J.-F., Mahfouf, J.-F., 1995. A new snow parameterization for the Meteo-France climate model Part I: validation in stand-alone experiments. Climate Dynamics, 12, 1, 21-35.10.1007/BF00208761Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Drusch, M., Vasiljevic, D., Viterbo, P., 2004. ECMWF’s global snow analysis: assessment and revision based on satellite observations. J. Appl. Meteorol., 43, 1282-1294.10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<1282:EGSAAA>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Dunne, S., Entekhabi, D., 2005. An ensemble‐based reanalysis approach to land data assimilation. Water Resour. Res., 41, 2.10.1029/2004WR003449Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Dunne, S., Entekhabi, D., 2006. Land surface state and flux estimation using the ensemble Kalman smoother during the Southern Great Plains 1997 field experiment. Water Resour. Res., 42, 1.10.1029/2005WR004334Search in Google Scholar

Durand, M., Margulis, S.A., 2006. Feasibility test of multifrequency radiometric data assimilation to estimate snow water equivalent. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 7, 3, 443-457.10.1175/JHM502.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Durand, M., Margulis, S.A., 2008. Effects of uncertainty magnitude and accuracy on assimilation of multiscale measurements for snowpack characterization. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 113, D02105.10.1029/2007JD008662Search in Google Scholar

Dutra, E., Balsamo, G., Viterbo, P., Miranda, P.M., Beljaars, A., Schär, C., Elder, K., 2010. An improved snow scheme for the ECMWF land surface model: description and offline validation. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 11, 4, 899-916.10.1175/2010JHM1249.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Dutra, E., Viterbo, P., Miranda, P.M., Balsamo, G., 2012. Complexity of snow schemes in a climate model and its impact on surface energy and hydrology. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 13, 2, 521-538.10.1175/JHM-D-11-072.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Endrizzi, S., Gruber, S., Dall'Amico, M., Rigon, R., 2014. GEOtop 2.0: simulating the combined energy and water balance at and below the land surface accounting for soil freezing, snow cover and terrain effects. Geoscientific Model Development, 7, 2831-2857.10.5194/gmd-7-2831-2014Search in Google Scholar

Essery, R., Rutter, N., Pomeroy, J., Baxter, R., Stahli, M., Gustafsson, D., Barr, A., Bartlett, P., Elder, K., 2009. SNPWMIP2: An evaluation of forest snow process simulations. Bull. Amer. Met. Soc., 90, 1120-1135.10.1175/2009BAMS2629.1Search in Google Scholar

Essery, R., Morin, S., Lejeune, Y., Ménard, C.B., 2013. A comparison of 1701 snow models using observations from an Alpine site. Advances in Water Resources, 55, 131-148.10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.07.013Search in Google Scholar

Etchevers, P., Martin, E., Brown, R., Fierz, C., Lejeune, Y., Bazile, E., Boone, A., Dai, Y.J., Essery, R., Fernandez, A., Gusev, Y., Jordan, R., Koren, V., Kowalczyk, E., Nasonova, N.O., Pyles, R.D., Schlosser, A., Shmakin, A.B., Smirnova, T.G., Strasser, U., Verseghy, D., Yamazaki, T., Yang, Z.L., 2003. Validation of the energy budget of an alpine snowpack simulated by several snow models (SnowMIP project). Annals of Glaciology, 38, 1, 150-158.10.3189/172756404781814825Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Evensen, G., 1994. Sequential data assimilation with a nonlinear quasi‐geostrophic model using Monte Carlo methods to forecast error statistics. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 99, C5, 10143-10162.10.1029/94JC00572Search in Google Scholar

Evensen, G., 2003. The ensemble Kalman filter: Theoretical formulation and practical implementation. Ocean Dynamics, 53, 4, 343-367.10.1007/s10236-003-0036-9Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Filippa, G., Cremonese, E., Galvagno, M., Migliavacca, M., Di Cella, U.M., Petey, M., Siniscalco, C., 2015. Five years of phenological monitoring in a mountain grassland: interannual patterns and evaluation of the sampling protocol. International journal of biometeorology, 59, 12, 1927-1937.10.1007/s00484-015-0999-525933668Search in Google Scholar

Froidurot, S., Zin, I., Hingray, B., Gautheron, A., 2014. Sensitivity of precipitation phase over the Swiss Alps to different meteorological variables. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 15, 2, 685-696.10.1175/JHM-D-13-073.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Galvagno, M., Wohlfahrt, G., Cremonese, E., Rossini, M., Colombo, R., Filippa, G., Julitta, T., Manca, G., Siniscalco, C., Migliavacca, M., Morra di Cella, U., 2013. Phenology and carbon dioxide source/sink strength of a subalpine grassland in response to an exceptionally short snow season. Environmental Research Letters, 8, 2, 025008.10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/025008Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Gelb, A., 1974. Optimal linear filtering, in Applied Optimal Estimation, edited by A. Gelb, pp. 102-155, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.Search in Google Scholar

Griessinger, N., Seibert, J., Magnusson, J., Jonas, T., 2016. Assessing the benefit of snow data assimilation for runoff modeling in Alpine catchments. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 20, 9, 3895-3905.10.5194/hess-20-3895-2016Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Gupta, H.V., Kling, H., Yilmaz, K.K., Martinez, G.F., 2009. Decomposition of the mean squared error and NSE performance criteria: Implications for improving hydrological modelling. Journal of Hydrology, 377, 1, 80-91.10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.08.003Search in Google Scholar

Hedstrom, N.R., Pomeroy, J.W., 1998. Accumulation of intercepted snow in the boreal forest: measurements and modelling. Hydrological Processes, 12, 1611-1625.10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199808/09)12:10/11<1611::AID-HYP684>3.0.CO;2-4Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Huang, C., Newman, A.J., Clark, M.P., Wood, A.W., Zheng, X., 2017. Evaluation of snow data assimilation using the ensemble Kalman filter for seasonal streamflow prediction in the western United States. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 21 1, 635-650.10.5194/hess-21-635-2017Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Jordan, R., 1991. A one-dimensional temperature model for a snow cover: Technical documentation for SNTHERM. 89 (No. CRREL-SR-91-16). Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab Hanover, NH.Search in Google Scholar

Jimenez-Munoz, J.C., Sobrino, J.A., 2008. Split-window coefficients for land surface temperature retrieval from lowresolution thermal infrared sensors. IEEE geoscience and remote sensing letters, 5, 4, 806-809.10.1109/LGRS.2008.2001636Search in Google Scholar

Kojima, K., 1967. Densification of a seasonal snow cover, in Physics of Snow and Ice, Proc. Int. Conf. Low Temp. Sci., vol. I, part 2, S.929-S.952.Search in Google Scholar

Lehning M., Bartelt, P.B., Brown, R.L., Fierz, C., Satyawali, P., 2002. A physical SNOWPACK model for the Swiss Avalanche Warning Services. Part II: Snow Microstructure. Cold regions science and technology, 35, 3, 147-167.10.1016/S0165-232X(02)00073-3Search in Google Scholar

Liston, G.E., Sturm, M., 1998. A snow-transport model for complex terrain. Journal of Glaciology, 44, 148, 498-516.10.1017/S0022143000002021Search in Google Scholar

Liston, G.E., Pielke, R.A., Greene, E.M., 1999. Improving firstorder snow‐related deficiencies in a regional climate model. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 104(D16), 19559-19567.10.1029/1999JD900055Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Liston, G.E., Hiemstra, C.A., 2008. A simple data assimilation system for complex snow distributions (SnowAssim). Journal of Hydrometeorology, 9, 5, 989-1004.10.1175/2008JHM871.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Magnusson, J., Farinotti, D., Jonas, T., and Bavay, M., 2011. Quantitative evaluation of different hydrological modelling approaches in a partly glacierized Swiss watershed. Hydrol. Process., 25, 2071-2084.10.1002/hyp.7958Search in Google Scholar

Magnusson, J., Gustafsson, D., Hüsler, F., Jonas, T., 2014. Assimilation of point SWE data into a distributed snow cover model comparing two contrasting methods. Water Resources Research, 50, 10, 7816-7835.10.1002/2014WR015302Search in Google Scholar

Magnusson, J., Wever, N., Essery, R., Helbig, N., Winstral, A., Jonas, T., 2015. Evaluating snow models with varying process representations for hydrological applications: Snow model evaluation. Water Resour. Res., 51, 2707-2723.10.1002/2014WR016498Search in Google Scholar

Malik, M.J., van der Velde, R., Vekerdy, Z., Su, Z., 2012. Assimilation of satellite-observed snow albedo in a land surface model. Journal of hydrometeorology, 13, 3, 1119-1130.10.1175/JHM-D-11-0125.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Mellor, M., 1964. Properties of snow, Cold Reg. Sci. Eng. Monogr., III-A1.Search in Google Scholar

Miller, R.N., Ghil, M., Gauthiez, F., 1994. Advanced data assimilation in strongly nonlinear dynamical systems. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 51, 8, 1037-1056.10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051<1037:ADAISN>2.0.CO;2Search in Google Scholar

Montzka, C., Pauwels, V., Franssen, H.J.H., Han, X., Vereecken, H., 2012. Multivariate and multiscale data assimilation in terrestrial systems: A review. Sensors, 12, 12, 16291-16333.10.3390/s121216291Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Moradkhani, H., 2008. Hydrologic remote sensing and land surface data assimilation. Sensors, 8, 5, 2986-3004.10.3390/s8052986Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Nijssen, B., Bowling, L.C., Lettenmaier, D.P., Clark, D.B., El Maayar, M., Essery, R.,Goers, S., Gusev, Y.M., Habets, F., van den Hurk, B., Jin, J., Kahan, D., Lohmann, D., Ma, X., Mahanama, S., Mocko, D., Nasonova, O., Niu, G., Samuelsson, P., Shmakin, A.B., Takata, K., Verseghy, D., Viterbo, P., Xia, Y., Xue, Y., Yang, Z., 2003. Simulation of high latitude hydrological processes in the Torne-Kalix basin: PILPS Phase 2 (e): 2: Comparison of model results with observations. Global and Planetary Change, 38, 1, 31-53.10.1016/S0921-8181(03)00004-3Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Pan, M., Sheffield, J., Wood, E.F., Mitchell, K.E., Houser, P.R., Schaake, J.C., Robock, A., Lohmann, D., Cosgrove, B., Duan, Q., Luo, L., Higgins, R.W.,Search in Google Scholar

Pinker, R.T., Tarpley, J.D., 2003. Snow process modeling in the North American Land Data Assimilation System (NLDAS): 2. Evaluation of model simulated snow water equivalent. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 108, D22.10.1029/2003JD003994Search in Google Scholar

Rodell, M., Houser, P.R., 2004. Updating a land surface model with MODIS-derived snow cover. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 5, 6, 1064-1075.10.1175/JHM-395.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Rutter, N., Essery, R., Pomeroy, J., Altimir, N., Andreadis, K., Baker, I., Barr, A., Bartlett, P., Boone, A., Deng, H., Douville, H., Dutra, E., Elder, K., Ellis, C., Feng, X., Gelfan, A., Goodbody, A., Gusev, Y., Gustafsson, D., Hellström, R., Hirabayashi, Y., Hirota, T., Jonas, T., Koren, V., Kuragina, A., Lettenmaier, D., Li, W.-P., Luce, C., Martin, E., Nasonova, O., Pumpanen, J., Pyles, R.D., Samuelsson, P., Sandells, M., Schädler, G., Shmakin, A., Smirnova, T.G., 27, Stähli, M., Stöckli, R., Strasser, U., Su, H., Suzuki, K., Takata, K., Tanaka, K., Thompson, E., Vesala, T., Viterbo, P., Wiltshire, A., Xia, K., Xue, Y., Yamazaki, T., 2009. Evaluation of forest snow processes models (SnowMIP2). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 114, D6.10.1029/2008JD011063Search in Google Scholar

Schlosser, C.A., Slater, A.G., Robock, A., Pitman, A.J., Vinnikov, K.Y., Henderson-Sellers, A., Speranskaya, N.A., Mitchell, K., and the PILPS2 contributors, 2000. Simulations of a boreal grassland hydrology at Valdai, Russia: PILPS Phase 2 (d). Monthly Weather Review, 128, 2, 301-321.10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0301:SOABGH>2.0.CO;2Search in Google Scholar

Slater, A.G., Pitman, A.J., Desborough, C.E., 1998. The validation of a snow parameterization designed for use in general circulation models. International journal of climatology, 18, 6, 595-617.10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(199805)18:6<595::AID-JOC275>3.0.CO;2-OOpen DOISearch in Google Scholar

Slater, A.G., Schlosser, C.A., Desborough, C.E., Pitman, A.J., Henderson-Sellers, A., Robock, A., Vinnikov, K.Y., Mitchell, K., Boone, A., Braden, H., Chen, F., Cox, P.M., de Rosnay, P., Dickinson, R.E., Dai,Y.-J., Duan ,Q., Entin, J., Etchevers, P., Gedney, N., Gusev, Y.M., Habets, F., Kim, J., Koren, V., Kowalczyk, E.A., Nasonova, O.N., Noilhan, J., Schaake, S., Shmakin, A.B., Smirnova, T.G., Verseghy, D., Wetzel, P., Xue, Y., Yang, Z.-L., Zeng, Q., 2001. The representation of snow in land surface schemes: Results from PILPS 2 (d). Journal of Hydrometeorology, 2, 1, 7-25.10.1175/1525-7541(2001)002<0007:TROSIL>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Slater, A.G., Clark, M.P., 2006. Snow data assimilation via an ensemble Kalman filter. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 7, 3, 478-493.10.1175/JHM505.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Stauffer, D.R., Seaman, N.L., 1990. Use of four-dimensional data assimilation in a limited-area mesoscale model. Part I: Experiments with synoptic-scale data. Monthly Weather Review, 118, 6, 1250-1277.10.1175/1520-0493(1990)118<1250:UOFDDA>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Stigter, E.E., Wanders, N., Saloranta, T.M., Shea, J.M., Bierkens, M.F.P., Immerzeel, W.W., 2017. Assimilation of snow cover and snow depth into a snow model to estimate snow water equivalent and snowmelt runoff in a Himalayan catchment, Cryosph., 1647-1664.10.5194/tc-11-1647-2017Search in Google Scholar

Su, H., Yang, Z.L., Niu, G.Y., Dickinson, R.E., 2008. Enhancing the estimation of continental‐scale snow water equivalent by assimilating MODIS snow cover with the ensemble Kalman filter. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 113, D8.10.1029/2007JD009232Search in Google Scholar

Su, H., Yang, Z.L., Dickinson, R.E., Wilson, C.R., Niu, G.Y., 2010. Multisensor snow data assimilation at the continental scale: The value of gravity recovery and climate experiment terrestrial water storage information. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 115, D10.10.1029/2009JD013035Search in Google Scholar

Sun, C., Walker, J.P., Houser, P.R., 2004. A methodology for snow data assimilation in a land surface model. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 109, D8.10.1029/2003JD003765Search in Google Scholar

Verseghy, D.L., 1991. CLASS-A Canadian land surface scheme for GCMs. I. Soil model. International Journal of Climatology, 11, 2, 111-133.10.1002/joc.3370110202Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Vionnet, V., Brun, E., Morin, S., Boone, A., Faroux, S., Le Moigne, P., Martin, E., Willemet, J.M., 2012. The detailed snowpack scheme Crocus and its implementation in SURFEX v7. 2. Geoscientific Model Development, 5, 773-791.10.5194/gmd-5-773-2012Search in Google Scholar

Wächter, A., Biegler, L.T., 2006. On the implementation of an interior-point filter line-search algorithm for large-scale nonlinear programming. Mathematical Programming, 106, 1, 25-57.10.1007/s10107-004-0559-ySearch in Google Scholar

Winstral, A., Marks, D., 2014. Long‐term snow distribution observations in a mountain catchment: Assessing variability, time stability, and the representativeness of an index site. Water Resources Research, 50, 1, 293-305.10.1002/2012WR013038Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Wiscombe, W.J., Warren, S.G., 1980. A model for the spectral albedo of snow. I: Pure snow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 37, 12, 2712-2733.10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<2712:AMFTSA>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Wood, A.W., Hopson, T., Newman, A., Brekke, L., Arnold, J., Clark, M., 2016. Quantifying streamflow forecast skill elasticity to initial condition and climate prediction skill. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 17, 2, 651-668.10.1175/JHM-D-14-0213.1Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Zappa, M., Pos, F., Strasser, U., Warmerdam, P., Gurtz, J., 2003. Seasonal water balance of an Alpine catchment as evaluated by different methods for spatially distributed snowmelt modelling. Hydrology Research, 34, 3, 179-202.10.2166/nh.2003.0003Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Zhang, T., 2005. Influence of the seasonal snow cover on the ground thermal regime: An overview. Reviews of Geophysics, 43, 4.10.1029/2004RG000157Open DOISearch in Google Scholar

Yang, Z.L., Dickinson, R.E., Robock, A., Vinnikov, K.Y., 1997. Validation of the snow submodel of the biosphere- atmosphere transfer scheme with Russian snow cover and meteorological observational data. Journal of Climate, 10, 2, 353-373.10.1175/1520-0442(1997)010<0353:VOTSSO>2.0.CO;2Open DOISearch in Google Scholar