The genus
Relative frequency of broadleaved tree species in Lebanon.
International common names of
Language | Name | References |
---|---|---|
English | Turkey oak, Austrian oak, Bitter oak, Iron oak, Mossy-cupped oak | CABI, 2021 |
French | Chêne chevelu, chêne de Bourgogne, Chêne de Turkuie, Cerre | CABI, 2021 |
Arabic | Ezer | Lebanon Flora, 2013 |
Spanish | Marojo | CABI, 2021 |
Italian | Cerro, Serro | CABI, 2021 |
The bark shape of Turkey oak.
The dark green leaves of Turkey oak.
Turkey oak is a monoecious tree that bears both unisexual flowers and is typically wind pollinated in spring. The species produces widely known fruit, commonly identified as acorns that are approximately 3 cm long (Figure 4) and mature 18 months after pollination. It should be noted that the acorns are surrounded at the base by a hairy cup known as the cupule that holds and protects the fruit during its growth and maturation.
Acorns with a hairy cup.
Forest dominated by Turkey oak in North Lebanon.
In addition,
The responses of trees to pollution stresses vary widely among species. Some species are considered as sensitive while others are reported as tolerant plants accumulating pollutants in their bodies (Rai, 2016).
Tzvetkova and Kolarov (1996) showed in their study on four different tree species that
Turkey oaks are multifunctional trees enabling a wide range of goods and services. They offer not only environmental protection but also revenue and livelihood options for forest-dependent communities.
They are well known by their ability to grow in a broad range of soil conditions, making them useful in soil cover, reforestation and erosion prevention (Mert
Compared to other oaks, Turkey oak wood is less valued because of its susceptibility to split and its lower resistance and durability (Ferrari
The seeds of Turkey oak can have several uses. They can be dried, grounded into powder and used as thickening agents or mixed with cereals for making bread. Roasted seeds are used in the preparation of a coffee-like beverage (Pinto
Additionally, a sweet fluid (saccharine fluid) exudes from insect damage on the stems and solidifies. This saccharine secretion is edible and is sold in local markets in Kurdistan and Iran. In fact, this fluid is boiled down into a syrup and used in sweetening food or mixed with flour for making a cake (Hedrick, 1919).
Furthermore, Turkey oak acorns represent an important source of food for some wildlife. These fruits have been also described as containing high contents of tannins and therefore are strongly astringent (Vinha
Studies revealed that galls, barks and leaves are all rich in active compounds with antioxidant activity, such as tannins, and are therefore used in traditional medicine for numerous purposes, including the treatment of hemorrhages, dysentery, chronic diarrhea, and gum problems (Taib
Moreover, scientific reports have validated the use of
According to research, organic extracts of
Research showed also that the butanol extracts of
Summarized MIC values for different
MRSA | References | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leaf butanol extract | - | 200 | - | - | - | 64 | 64 | 128 | Hobby |
Leaf ethyl acetate extract | - | - | - | - | - | 128 | 64 | 128 | Şöhretoğlu |
Leaf aqueous extract | - | - | - | - | - | 128 | 64 | 128 | Şöhretoğlu |
Stem/root butanol extract | - | 200 | - | - | - | - | - | - | Hobby |
Wood methanol extract | 130 | 30 | 80 | 30 | 500 | - | - | - | Şmailagić |
Similar to other oak species, the Turkey oak has suffered periods of decline, attributed to a variety of interacting biotic and abiotic causes (Amorini
Powdery mildew of oak is a disease caused by different species of fungi which attack young leaves. It starts as little white spores usually on the lower leaves of the tree and then spread over the entire tree if left untreated. The spores cover the leaves and inhibit photosynthesis causing them to wilt and fall off. Early detection provides the best way to contain the spread of this disease. In most situations, fungicides are sprayed to prevent the fungi from stunting the growth of seedlings and young trees (Lonsdale, 2016; Lamp’l, 2021). The use of fungicides, although being strongly effective, might be impracticable in a forest situation where there is a large number of trees, or may be illegal in some countries (Lonsdale, 2016). Thus the use of an alternative treatment method is needed. One of the possibilities that could be investigated is the use of natural control agents, such as pathogens that can parasitize the oak powdery mildew fungi and eventually inhibit the formation of its spores.
Oak wilt is caused by
Trenches installed around the infected tree (Adopted from Fite, 2018).
Chestnut blight is actually a canker disease caused by a fungus,
Soil compress plastered all over the canker (Adopted from Weidlich, 1978).
The soil compress method has been applied in Albania by a group of researchers to heal infected chestnut tree barks mechanically (Ndreu & Shehi, 2021). Briefly after cleaning the cankered area with a sickle, the muddy soil was plastered all over the cankerous wound and kept till the end of the growing season. Soil was collected from under the diseased tree and mixed with water and copper sulphate. The latter is an inorganic compound generally used to kill fungi and bacteria. This method differs from other traditional methods by cleaning the part affected by blight canker and then plastering the gooey mud. Tree cleaning allows the wood to start the recovery process of the cankerous wound and inhibits the spread of canker to other trees. The implementation of this method has enabled improvement of the condition of infected chestnut plantations, minimized their drying and enhanced their productivity. Therefore, application of this simple method to treat other infected trees, such as oaks, could be interesting.
A chemical method can also be applied to control chestnut blight disease. This method consists of spraying fungicides, such as copper oxychloride, copper sulphate and thiophanate methyl on the wound.
Anthracnose disease is caused by many different fungi that create irregular-shaped brown lesions on leaves. As the disease gets worse, the tree branches can also become infected with the anthracnose fungus and start to crack. The management of anthracnose consists of pruning out the diseased branches and removing infected leaves and twigs. Trees may also be injected with systemic fungicides. Some applied fungicides can trigger the tree’s natural defense mechanisms rendering it more tolerant to infection with faster recovery time; whereas others can directly kill the fungus itself and are recommended when the infection is particularly severe and recurs every year (Arborjet, 2020).
As for oak leaf blister, it is caused by the
Turkey oak is also attacked by a wide range of pests that cause damage to the tree, including scale, oak skeletonizer, leaf miner, oak lace bugs, borers, caterpillars, and nut weevils.
Turkey oak, growing in most soil types, is one of the most important resources providing multiple benefits to people. It is used in foods, traditional or folk healing practices and has showed antimicrobial properties against some human pathogenic microorganisms. However, further studies are needed to assess the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of different tree parts against a broader range of pathogens in order to encourage its use in pharmaceutical industries. Furthermore, to fight environmental pollution that affects ecosystems in a number of ways, and since Turkey oak is considered as a pollution-tolerant tree species, it could be highly recommended for afforestation along roadsides and in industrial regions.