A systematic review of Chinese students’ online learning experiences

To decrease the risk of researchers’ selection bias, systematic literature review projects employ an explicit search strategy to find, select and include previous studies for the review (Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Coordinating Centre, 2010). In this review, the literature search and selection were conducted following the guidelines by Newman and Gough (2020). This review project selected the largest database of peer-reviewed literature, Scopus (www.scopus.com), to search for relevant papers to ensure a balance between comprehensiveness and relevance of online Chinese students’ literature (Owen et al., 2016). Three sets of broad search strings were established (see Table 1) to locate relevant articles concerning ‘Chinese students’ engaging with the ‘online delivery mode’ of ‘higher education’. Subsequently, the literature search conducted in November 2021, without time restrictions, initially produced 177 items.

Figure 1 shows this selection process. Firstly, all 177 items were imported into a reference management software EndNote to check duplication. There was no duplicate item. The publication information of all 177 items was reviewed and 54 items were filtered out—41 items were not journal articles or book chapters (editorials, reviews and conference papers were filtered out), 11 items were not published and two items were written in languages other than English or Chinese. Abstracts of the remaining 123 studies were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Table 2). The original inclusion and exclusion criteria included ‘Chinese students enrolled in non-Chinese higher education institutions’ to develop a comparative perspective on Chinese native students (and Chinese international students). However, this criterion was inapplicable in practice because the number of papers meeting it was disappointingly small, which was not conducive to developing a comprehensive understanding of online Chinese students’ experience. Thus, the conceptual scope of Chinese students was extended in the criterion, including Chinese students who reside outside China as well as those in China.

Figure 1:

The authors selected 40 papers and excluded 83 articles, where 81 studies were unrelated to online learning and 2 items did not focus on Chinese students. As 6 of the remaining 40 papers were unavailable due to access limitations, only 34 papers were used for further analysis.

To answer the research questions, a coding framework involving the following aspects was developed: (i) characteristics of the selected studies, including geographical locations (countries of the first authors, countries of research sites and countries of higher education institutions), theoretical framework and research methodology (research approach, research design, data collection methods and data analysis methods); (ii) main topics, findings, limitations and implications of the selected studies; and (iii) characteristics of Chinese students (assumptions and attitudes) and their online learning experiences (perceived benefits and challenges) reported in the selected studies. Both authors coded the first five articles separately and reviewed the coding results to establish inter-coder reliability. The remaining articles were coded by the first author using the qualitative analysis software ATLAS.ti¹, and the coding results were again checked and reviewed by the second author. The comprehensive answers to the three research questions were drawn from the coding results.

Geographical characteristics of the corpus

About half of the first authors of the selected papers (n = 16) are located in China. One of those authors is affiliated with a transnational university (TU) in China, and the other is with CUs. The first authors of the remaining 18 articles are located in seven countries other than China (Figure 2). Similarly, 18 studies have focussed on Chinese students’ online learning experience within CUs, including two studies at TUs in China (Figure 3). Fourteen articles have focussed on Chinese students’ online learning experiences outside China. The other two articles (Zhu et al., 2009a, b) have made a comparative attempt to examine the differences between Chinese students and non-Chinese students in their online learning experiences. There have been more studies on Chinese domestic participants than on Chinese overseas students, at 20 and 15, respectively (Figure 4). One study (Turnbull et al., 2021) has been counted twice since it includes both Chinese domestic students and Chinese overseas students.

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Theoretical characteristics employed in the corpus

There were four main categories of theories utilised in the reviewed articles (Figure 5). Firstly, theories related to learning and learners are most frequently adopted (26%, n = 11). Here, five articles discuss different factors affecting learners’ self-regulating learning (Table 3). Two articles utilise the motivation theory. The rest of the four use flow theory, language learning theory, a theoretical notion of learner beliefs and self-efficacy, respectively.

Figure 5:

Secondly, theories about culture and knowledge construction are utilised in nine articles (24%). The acculturation framework is popular in exhibiting students’ online academic adaption process in a cross-cultural context (n = 4). Three articles employ a theory of culture, cultural attributes and interest. The others (n = 3) present interpretivism, social constructivism and sociocultural constructivism as a chosen theoretical framework concerning the authors’ (or students’) knowledge development processes.

Thirdly, theories useful to explain the educational adoption of technology are also applied (19%, n = 8). In particular, the technology acceptance model has been used to identify the factors affecting Chinese students’ intention and acceptance of online learning (n = 3). Other technology-related theories, including diffusion of innovation, media richness theory, multimedia learning theory, push–pull–mooring model and transactional distance theory, guide five studies. Notably, 13 studies do not explicitly mention any particular theoretical framework.

Overall, 41% of the selected articles use the quantitative research methodology (Figure 6), such as regression models (Cheng & Ding, 2021). Twelve articles present qualitative studies (35%), including autoethnography (Wong et al., 2002), ground theory (Law et al., 2013), and phenomenology (Kung, 2017). A total of 24% of the corpus (n = 8) discusses the results of mixed-methods studies (e.g. Hou, 2020).

Figure 6:

There is a great variation in the authors’ selection of specific research designs (Figure 7). The majority of researchers (n = 22) employ a case study design. Some scholars (n = 8) select a comparative design and a crosssectional design. The experimental design is also used in three articles. Only one study (Tawil et al., 2012) uses an action research design to explore the differences in the acceptance of online learning among Chinese students and non-Chinese student groups (n = 1).

Figure 7:

Data collection and analysis methods employed in the selected articles are also diverse (Table 4). Not surprisingly, surveys (n = 22) and interviews (n = 15) are most frequently used in data collection. Many authors used more than one data collection method—Jin et al. (2021) and Law et al. (2013) conducted both surveys (questionnaires) and interviews (focus groups). Experiments involving a pre-test and post-test comparison, secondary data collection and observations are also often conducted, as reflected in 11 articles. Personal experience and students’ postings are less frequently adopted by four studies.

Regarding data analysis methods, inferential statistics and descriptive statistics are used in 19 articles and 14 studies, respectively; however, they are often employed by the same authors. Cheng and Ding (2021), for example, examine students’ perceptions of online review exercises using both inferential statistics and descriptive statistics. Twelve papers adopt qualitative coding and thematic analysis, and content analysis is presented in two articles. Narrative analysis, systematic analysis and triangulation are the three other methods that appear in a small number of articles (n = 3).

Focussed topics of the previous studies

Most of the selected articles deal with more than one research topic, exploring different aspects of online Chinese students’ experiences and related factors (see Figure 8). These topics are categorised into eight general research themes with 33 more specific research topics (Table 5). The most frequently researched topic has been Chinese students’ attitudes towards online learning (n = 19). The selected studies have also investigated students’ perceptions of online learning technologies and tools (n = 15). The review results suggest that the literature’s most commonly utilised and studied online learning activities have been online discussions and knowledge co-construction (both synchronously and asynchronously). Ten studies concern how Chinese students learn specific learning subject knowledge online, with five of them focussing on language learning. Other scholars (n = 10) have explored various cultural matters that emerged in Chinese students’ online learning context. In addition, a small number of studies examine online Chinese students’ learning strategies, performances and influencing factors.

Figure 8:

The findings in the corpus have been categorised into three broad themes (Table 6). The first theme focusses on the effectiveness of specific online learning tools and the differences in their usage among students (n = 12). Here, a majority of studies (n = 8) report positive impacts of learning tools on online Chinese students (e.g. Hou, 2020; Turnbull et al., 2021). They confirm that online communication tools and collaborative learning tools, such as social media platforms and learning management systems, not only improve students’ performance but also help international Chinese students adjust to their lives abroad, providing valuable information academically and culturally and promoting students’ interaction.

Interestingly, however, Forbush and Foucault-Welles (2016) and Mikal et al. (2015) find conflicting results. Some online communication tools, such as social networking tools, limit Chinese students’ effective cultural integration in the foreign institutional context by making students rely on building insular and co-national networks. The other two articles (Ng & Tan, 2017; Zhou, 2014) detect meaningful differences in Chinese students’ usage of certain online learning tools. They find that male students tend to use online learning tools more effectively to search for information than female students.

Key findings of online students’ behaviours can be explained as the dynamic interplay among six components: learning culture, learning motivation, learning outcomes, learning activities, learning environment and learning strategies. There is no denying that Chinese traditional culture strongly affects online Chinese students. Two studies (Nield, 2004; Zhang, 2013) discover that Chinese students are intimidated to seek help from their instructors due to the perceived power distance existing in Chinese traditional culture. Yong (2021) also proves that Chinese overseas students seek assistance from instructors less than other international students. Kung (2017) finds that instructors’ lack of cultural awareness is detrimental to students’ effective intercultural adaptation and Chinese overseas students tend to feel anxious when participating in online discussions.

On the other hand, Commander et al. (2016) confirm that engagement in cross-national online discussions facilitates Chinese overseas students’ new knowledge construction. Chinese students also prefer participating in asynchronous discussions such as online discussion boards to synchronous discussions (Thompson & Ku, 2005). Zhu et al. (2009b) find that Chinese students’ learning strategies align with a social–constructivist learning approach, and their learning outcomes improve after studying online. Regarding other influencing factors, there is a positive correlation between Chinese students’ learning environment management behaviours and their online learning performance—which is also strongly influenced by instructors’ feedback practices and students’ help-seeking behaviours (Du, 2016). Interest in subjects and positive self-talk are additional motivating factors for engaging with online learning, particularly in language learning situations (Xiao & Hurd, 2010; Zhou et al., 2021).

Eight studies are categorised into the third theme on Chinese students’ emotions and perspectives. Three studies (Tsai, 2019; Wong et al., 2002; Zhou et al., 2021) indicate that Chinese students are generally satisfied with online learning experiences, while Zhu et al. (2009a) demonstrate that Chinese students are less comfortable with online learning than other students. The review results also suggest that Chinese students experience difficult emotions in online learning. Kung (2017) argues that Chinese overseas students feel more isolated and alienated than Chinese domestic students in online learning due to their language limitations. Yong (2021) also reveals that Chinese students had a significant need for pastoral care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, Chinese students prefer blended learning (Thompson & Ku, 2005).

Limitations and implications of the previous research

The limited data scope is one of the frequently stated research limitations by the previous authors (48%, n = 14), followed by the existence of potential biases in collected data (17%, n = 5) (see Figure 9). The short study duration and the small sample size are reported in six articles. The authors of four studies are concerned about a lack of validity and credibility of some of their findings, potentially caused by the subjective nature of their investigation (e.g. Hou, 2020). Despite the limitations, these authors have provided valuable suggestions for educational practices and future research. Researchers indicate that instructors and universities should put more effort into facilitating intercultural communications for Chinese students and design specific programmes to help students’ cultural adaptation in online settings (Forbush & Foucault-Welles, 2016; Kung, 2017). Suggestions for future research focus on diversifying research methodologies and expanding research directions. Here, qualitative studies and mixed-methods (or multi-angle) research are recommended.

Figure 9:

Students’ attitudes towards online learning impact their behaviours and intentions to attend online courses, which has been a spotlight of previous research. Ferrer et al. (2022) reflect that Chinese students’ attitudes impact their acceptance and engagement with online learning. However, the previous studies provide conflicting explanations of Chinese students’ perceptions of different aspects of online learning. Although Chinese students are generally satisfied with their learning experience, they hold a conservative attitude towards the fully online distance learning mode. This may simply be caused by Chinese students’ unfamiliarity with online learning (or familiarity with on-campus learning), given that online distance education has been a relatively new phenomenon in China (Andersson & Grönlund, 2009). The effectiveness of specific learning technologies and tools is also the central focus. The review results indicate that online Chinese students’ experience is generally enhanced through the effective adoption of digital tools and other technological platforms (Chen et al., 2010).

Although there have been individual studies examining different influencing factors, including learning activities, culture, motivation and strategies, those findings need to be reviewed and further explored. Also, as Gorard (2013) criticises, case studies often focus on collecting a limited dataset to simply describe a case, which aligns with major limitations identified by previous authors in this review (i.e. the limited data scope and small sample size). Therefore, future research can employ diverse research methodologies with extended scopes of data and topics, aiming to establish a complete account of online students’ experiences. At the same time, we have noticed that none of the previous studies looked into the impact of national and institutional policies that shaped and influenced students’ experiences. Given that a lack of government and social recognition of distance education has led to the slow development of online learning in China and the low participation rate among Chinese students in online higher education, it may be necessary to investigate the impact of policy changes on online students’ experience, especially in the context of the post-pandemic.

Statements about Chinese students and Chinese culture Generally speaking, the previous scholars’ claims about Chinese students and Chinese culture (largely in evaluative nature) are negative (see Figure 10). The previous authors seldom use positive statements describing the characteristics of Chinese students and culture (see Table 7). Here, Chinese traditional culture is often described as authoritative (n = 8), competitive (n = 3) and face-saving (n = 3), while it places importance on collectivism (n = 8) and harmony (n = 4). Many scholars appraise Chinese education as teacher-driven instruction (n = 5), achievement-focussed (n = 4) and authoritarian (n = 1). Some authors show rather neutral attitudes towards Chinese education, focussing on content-based instruction (n = 3) and fundamental skills training (n = 3). Conservative and silent students tend to be the dominant representation of Chinese students (n = 10), followed by being afraid of losing face (n = 4) and avoiding conflict (n = 2). Five studies include positive statements about Chinese students, describing them as diligent, adaptive and holistic learners. Likewise, Zhang (2013) compliments Chinese students genuinely searching for new knowledge. Nevertheless, there have been a greater number of negative statements about Chinese students’ learning behaviours—being passive (n = 9), pragmatic (n = 6) and seldom asking for teacher guidance (n = 9). A lack of critical thinking was also noted in three studies.

Figure 10:

Statements about the benefits and challenges of online learning

Unsurprisingly, the main benefits of online learning stated in the reviewed papers are its convenience and flexibility (n = 14), followed by the collaborative and interactive nature of online learning (n = 6) (Figure 11). Online learning supports Chinese international students’ cultural adoption in the host country and helps them easily access more learning resources online (n = 3). Four studies conclude that online learning improves Chinese students’ learning outcomes and motivation, and one study particularly notes that students acquire information and communication technology (ICT) skills. Ironically, however, a lack of interaction and a sense of isolation are also considered the main challenge stated in 13 articles (Figure 12)—interactivity is a double-edged sword of online learning. At the same time, four papers state that online learning negatively influences students’ learning motivation. A lack of cultural exchanges (n = 3), a range of technical challenges (n = 2) and a high cost (n = 1) are stated as additional challenges.

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Figure 12: