Exosomes: intriguing mediators of intercellular communication in the organism’s response to noxious agents

Type of noxious agent	Pathogen/causative agent/disease	Exosomal content	Secreting cells	The role of the exosome	Ref.
B/bacterial agent	Helicobacter pylori virulence infection	cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA)	CagA-expressing gastric epithelial cells	Developing extra-gastric disorders associated with CagApositive H. pylori infection	1, 25
B/bacterial agent	Trypanosoma brucei	Serum resistance associated protein	T. brucei	Allowing evasion from human innate immunity	48
B/bacterial agent	T. brucei	Immunogenic variant surface glycoprotein	T. brucei	Altering the physical properties of the erythrocyte membrane and causing clearance of infected erythrocytes by macrophages in the liver and spleen	48
B/bacterial agent	Gram-negative bacteria	Lipopolysaccharide	Gram-negative bacteria	Promoting caspase-11 activation and host defence against bacterial infection and pathogenesis of sepsis	1
B/viruses	Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)	Cytoskeletal proteins (Actin, Tubulin, Lamin, Myosin), microRNA (miRNA)	Cellular target: Lymphocytes	Induce proinflammatory cytokines, inhibition of apoptosis, increased susceptibility of naïve T cells, downregulation of CD4 and MHC I, support viral reproduction and pathogenesis	32
B/viruses	Human Papillomavirus (HPV)	Immunoregulator molecules, miRNA	Cellular target: Epithelial cells	Apoptosis, viral proliferation	32
B/viruses	Human T-lymphotropic-1 virus (HTLV-1)- infected T-cell lines	Viral transactivator (Tax)	T lymphocytes	HTLV-1 infection, activating transcription of target cells	1, 33
B/parasites	Plasmodium falciparum/Malaria	Nucleic acid, lipides	P. falciparum-infected red blood cells	Promote malaria transmission and parasite survival, intercellular communication via gene delivery	45, 46
B/parasites	Leishmania donovani/Leishmaniasis	Nucleic acid, lipides	From L. donovani	Inhibit the macrophage immune response, induce macrophages to secrete IL-8 rather than TNF-α	46, 53
B/parasites	Trichomonas vaginalis/Trichomoniasis	Nucleic acid, lipides	From T. vaginalis	Facilitate T. vaginalis invasion and modulate host inflammatory activation, promote pathogen adherence to epithelial cells; inhibit IL-8 secretion by ectocervical cells and neutrophil migration to the infection site	45, 46
B/parasites	Schistosoma japonicum/Schistosomiasis	Nucleic acid, lipids	From S. japonicum	Mediate parasite-host communications and activate the host immune response, promote M1 macrophage polarization with increased production of pro-inflammatory factors	41, 46
B/biotoxins/animal toxins	Bufo maxima/Toxin β γ-CAT/Cytotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunosuppression	Virulence factor	Toxin β γ-CAT Isolated from Bufo maxima skin secretions	Regulation of immune response, stimulate produce functional exosomes and activate immune T cell response	8
B/biotoxins/plant toxins	Plant toxins /Trichosanthes kirilowii, Trichosanthin toxin/toxic shock syndrome	Virulence factor	T. kirilowi	Vehicle of delivery, Trichosanthin toxin uses the delivery of exosomes to form unique toxin-loaded vesicles	1, 8
B/biotoxins/mycotoxin	Fusarium sp./T-2 mycotoxin / cytotoxic effects, immunotoxicity	Virulence factor	Fusarium sp. infected cells	Receptor-mediated, the exosome was used as a safe transport carrier for receptor cells to transmit HIF-1 α through the exosome. The release of exosomes is related to HIF-1 α in hypoxic tumours, which is beneficial to immune escape	8, 54
B/ biotoxins/bacterial toxin	Bacillus anthracis/Lethal toxin/ anthrax	Virulence factor	B. anthracis infected cells	Vehicle of delivery, the lethal factor of anthrax lethal toxin, can be transmitted from cell to cell through exosomes, which may play a toxic role over a long distance	1, 8
B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin	Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Diphtheria Toxin/ Diphtheria	Virulence factor	C. diphtheriae infected cells	Receptor-mediated, exosome directly induces toxin oligomerization on the membrane to protect cells	1, 8
B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin	Vibrio cholerae/Cholera toxin/ Cholera	Virulence factor	V. cholerae, infected cells	Receptor-mediated, Cholera toxin can be propagated and transmitted through exosomes in the form of bioactivity	1, 55
B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin	Shigella sp./Shiga toxin/ Shigellosis	Virulence factor	Shigella sp. infected cells	Vehicle of delivery, Shiga toxin exists on the surface of exosome	8
B/biotoxins/bacterial toxin	Staphylococcus aureus/ Alpha toxin/Toxic shock syndrome, sepsis, pneumonia	Virulence factor	S. aureus infected cells	Regulation of immune response, exosome acts as bait to capture membrane virulence factors (such as porotoxins) to prevent target tissue damage	8
C	Arsenite/Lung carcinogenesis, liver carcinogenesis	miR-21, miR-155	Lung and liver cells	Gene modulation, gene expression	8, 61
C	Cigarette smoke/Lung carcinoma, Alzheimer’s disease	miR-21, IL-13, mediators of Wnt/β-catenin pathway	Lung cells	Gene modulation, gene expression	41, 61
C	Pyridostigmine bromide, Permethrin/Gulf War Illness, neurological diseases	Spectrin breakdown products (SPBs)	Nerve cells	Neuromodulation	61
C	Manganese/Synucleopathies, other neurodegenerative diseases, Parkinson’s disease	α-synuclein	Nerve cells	Neuromodulation	61
R	Ionising radiation/Tracheal carcinoma	miRNAs, integrins and chemokines	Immune and lung cells	Gene modulation, gene expression	61

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Exosomes: intriguing mediators of intercellular communication in the organism’s response to noxious agents

Ante Vučemilović

Catégorie d'article: Review

Publié en ligne: 29 déc. 2024

Pages: 228 - 239

Reçu: 01 nov. 2024

Accepté: 01 déc. 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/aiht-2024-75-3923

Mots clésbiological mediators, extracellular vesicles, harmful agents, intercellular crosstalk, signalling

© 2024 Ante Vučemilović, published by Sciendo

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

Exosomes specifically formed in the human organism in response to various biological, chemical, and radiological noxious agents

Mots clés
biological mediators, extracellular vesicles, harmful agents, intercellular crosstalk, signalling