À propos de cet article
Publié en ligne: 20 déc. 2023
Pages: 43 - 61
Reçu: 23 févr. 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/quageo-2023-0042
© 2023 Gülfiye Özcan Alp et al., published by Sciendo
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
The Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) (EU 2021).
| Dimension | Sub-dimension | Indicator |
|---|---|---|
| 1 Human capital 25% | 1a Internet user skills | 1a1 At least basic digital skills |
| 1a2 Above basic digital skills | ||
| 1a3 At least basic software skills | ||
| 1b Advanced skills and development | 1b1 ICT specialists | |
| 1b2 Female ICT specialists | ||
| 1b3 Enterprises providing ICT training | ||
| 1b4 ICT graduates | ||
| 2 Connectivity 25% | 2a Fixed broadband take-up | 2a1 Overall fixed broadband take-up |
| 2a2 At least 100 Mbps fixed broadband take-up | ||
| 2a3 At least 1 Gbps take-up | ||
| 2b Fixed broadband coverage | 2b1 Fast broadband (NGA) coverage | |
| 2b2 Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) coverage | ||
| 2c Mobile broadband | 2c1 4G coverage | |
| 2c2 5G readiness | ||
| 2c3 5G coverage | ||
| 2c4 Mobile broadband take-up | ||
| 2d Broadband prices | 2d1 Broadband price index | |
| 3 Integration of Digital Technology 25% | 3a Digital intensity | 3a1 SMEs with at least a basic level of digital intensity |
| 3b Digital technologies for businesses | 3b1 Electronic information sharing | |
| 3b2 Social media | ||
| 3b3 Big data | ||
| 3b4 Cloud | ||
| 3b5 AI | ||
| 3b6 ICT for environmental sustainability | ||
| 3b7 e-Invoices | ||
| 3c e-Commerce | 3c1 SMEs selling online | |
| 3c2 e-Commerce turnover | ||
| 3c3 Selling online cross-border | ||
| 4 Digital Public Services 25% | 4a e-Government | 4a1 e-Government users |
| 4a2 Pre-filled forms | ||
| 4a3 Digital public services for citizens | ||
| 4a4 Digital public services for businesses | ||
| 4a5 Open data |
Additional Divides – 21 indicators
| Index | Indicator |
|---|---|
| IDI | 9. Mean year of schooling |
| 10. Secondary gross enrolment ratio | |
| 11. Tertiary gross enrolment ratio | |
| DESI | 1b1 ICT specialists |
| 1b2 Female ICT specialists | |
| 1b4 ICT graduates | |
| 2d1 Broadband price index | |
| Disparity in broadband uptake between urban and rural households | |
| Digital Toolkit | Percentage of individuals aged 55–74 using the Internet |
| Percentage of individuals who live in households with income in lowest quartile who use the Internet | |
| Women as a share of all 16- to 24-year-olds who can program | |
| Disparity in Internet use between men and women | |
| Top-performing 15- to 16-year-old students in science, mathematics and reading | |
| Workers receiving employment-based training, as a percentage of total employment | |
| New tertiary graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, as a percentage of new graduates | |
| ICT investment as a percentage of GDP | |
| Business R&D expenditure in information industries as a percentage of GDP | |
| Venture capital investment in the ICT sector as a percentage of GDP | |
| Percentage of businesses in which ICT security and data protection tasks are mainly performed by own employees | |
| Digital-intensive services value added embodied in manufacturing exports, as a percentage of manufacturing export value | |
| Public spending on active labour market policies, as a percentage of GDP |
Digital divide indicators for Türkiye.
| Level 1 | Level 2 | Level 3 | Additionals |
|---|---|---|---|
| Percentage of households with Internet access | Percentage of computer usage | ICT firms in the business population | Disparity in Internet use between men and women |
| Percentage of households with fixed broadband access | Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | Techno parks, R&D, and design centres | Percentage of age dependency |
| Percentage of households with mobile broadband access | Percentage of individuals using the Internet | Total number of businesses making e-commerce | Mean year of schooling |
| Length of fibre | Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | ICT goods and services as a share of international trade | Secondary gross enrolment ratio |
| Share of the population covered by at least a 4G mobile network | Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | Percentage of tertiary graduates | |
| Poverty ratio | |||
| Urban and rural households | |||
| Business R&D expenditure | |||
| GDP |
Going Digital Toolkit (OECD 2021).
| Dimension | Indicator |
|---|---|
| Access |
Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants M2M (machine-to-machine) SIM cards per 100 inhabitants Mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants Share of households with broadband connections Share of businesses with broadband contracted speed of 30 Mbps or more Share of the population covered by at least a 4G mobile network Disparity in broadband uptake between urban and rural households |
| Use |
Internet users as a share of individuals Share of individuals using the Internet to interact with public authorities Share of Internet users who have purchased online Share of small businesses making e-commerce sales Share of businesses with a web presence Share of businesses purchasing cloud services Average monthly mobile data usage per mobile broadband subscription, GB Share of adults proficient at problem-solving in technology-rich environments |
| Innovation |
ICT investment as a percentage of GDP Business R&D expenditure in information industries as a percentage of GDP Venture capital investment in the ICT sector as a percentage of GDP Share of start-up companies (up to 2 years old) in the business population Top 10% most-cited documents in computer science, as a percentage of the top 10% ranked documents Patents in ICT-related technologies, as a percentage of total IP5 patent families |
| Jobs |
ICT task-intensive jobs as a percentage of total employment Digital-intensive sectors’ share in total employment Workers receiving employment-based training, as a percentage of total employment New tertiary graduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, as a percentage of new graduates Public spending on active labour market policies, as a percentage of GDP |
| Society |
Percentage of individuals aged 55–74 using the Internet Percentage of individuals who live in households with income in the lowest quartile who use the Internet Women as a share of all 16- to 24-year-olds who can program Disparity in Internet use between men and women Percentage of individuals who use digital equipment at work that telework from home once a week or more Top-performing 15- to 16-year-old students in science, mathematics and reading OECD Digital Government Index e-Waste generated, kilogrammes per inhabitant |
| Trust |
Percentage of Internet users experiencing abuse of personal information or privacy violations Percentage of individuals not buying online because of payment security concerns Percentage of individuals not buying online because of concerns about returning products Percentage of businesses in which ICT security and data protection tasks are mainly performed by own employees Health data sharing intensity |
| Market Openness |
Share of businesses making e-commerce sales that sell across borders Digitally deliverable services as a share of commercial services trade ICT goods and services as a share of international trade Digital-intensive services value added embodied in manufacturing exports, as a percentage of manufacturing export value OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index OECD Foreign Direct Investment Regulatory Restrictiveness Index |
Third-Level Digital Divide – 17 indicators
| Index | Indicator |
|---|---|
| IDI | None |
| DESI | 3b6 ICT for environmental sustainability |
| 3c1 SMEs selling online | |
| 3c2 e-Commerce turnover | |
| 3c3 Selling online cross-border | |
| Digital Toolkit | Share of small businesses making ecommerce sales |
| Percentage of Internet users experiencing abuse of personal information or privacy violations | |
| Percentage of individuals not buying online because of payment security concerns | |
| Percentage of individuals not buying online because of concerns about returning products | |
| Share of businesses making e-commerce sales that sell across borders | |
| Digitally deliverable services as a share of commercial services trade | |
| ICT goods and services as a share of international trade | |
| Share of start-up firms (up to 2 years old) in the business population | |
| Top 10% most-cited documents in computer science, as a percentage of the top 10% ranked documents | |
| Patents in ICT-related technologies, as a percentage of total IP5 patent families | |
| ICT task-intensive jobs as a percentage of total employment | |
| Digital-intensive sectors’ share in total employment | |
| e-Waste generated, kilogrammes per inhabitant |
Regional digital divide results.
| I | II | III | IV | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TR1 | Istanbul | 0.25 | 0.49 | 1.98 | 0.15 |
| TR2 | West Marmara | 0.18 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.12 |
| TR3 | Aegean | 0.24 | 0.37 | 0.81 | 0.13 |
| TR4 | Eastern Marmara | 0.21 | 0.38 | 0.23 | 0.16 |
| TR5 | Western Anatolia | 0.21 | 0.41 | 0.40 | 0.19 |
| TR6 | Mediterranean | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.16 | 0.12 |
| TR7 | Central Anatolia | 0.20 | 0.34 | 0.06 | 0.11 |
| TR8 | Western Black Sea | 0.18 | 0.34 | 0.05 | 0.11 |
| TR9 | Eastern Black Sea | 0.18 | 0.34 | 0.03 | 0.10 |
| TRA | Northeast Anatolia | 0.18 | 0.28 | 0.01 | 0.07 |
| TRB | Middle East Anatolia | 0.19 | 0.28 | 0.02 | 0.09 |
| TRC | Southeastern Anatolia | 0.20 | 0.28 | 0.06 | 0.07 |
A digital divide index for Türkiye with final indicators.
| Ideal value | Indicator weights (%) | Level weights (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First-level indicators – access and skills | |||
| Percentage of households with broadband access | 100 | 0.30 | 0.25 |
| Percentage of households with mobile broadband access | 100 | 0.40 | |
| Length of fibre | 55,000 | 0.30 | |
| Second-level indicators – usage | |||
| Percentage of computer usage | 80 | 0.30 | 0.25 |
| Percentage of individuals using the Internet (regular) | 100 | 0.30 | |
| Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | 30 | 0.40 | |
| Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | 100 | 0.50 | |
| Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | 130 | 0.50 | |
| The third-level indicators – outcomes | |||
| ICT firms in the business population | 6,000 | 0.30 | 0.25 |
| Techno parks, R&D, and design centres | 2,500 | 0.40 | |
| Total number of businesses making e-commerce | 1,200 | 0.30 | |
| Additional divides – demographic and socio-economic factors | |||
| Disparity in Internet use between men and women | 20 | 0.20 | 0.25 |
| Percentage of age dependency | 70 | 0.20 | |
| Secondary gross enrolment ratio | 100 | 0.20 | |
| Urban/rural households | 100 | 0.20 | |
| R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP | 2 | 0.20 | |
Three levels of digital divide (adopted from van Deursen, van Dijk 2018).
| Source | Date | Main theme | Level | Definition |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| NTIA | 1999 | Internet connection | First-level digital divide | “The divide between those with access to new technologies and those without |
| DiMaggio & Hargittai | 2001 | Internet skills and usage | Second-level digital divide | “…variation in the technical means (hardware and connections) by which people access the Web.… exercise autonomy in their use of the Web..…in the skill that people bring to their use of the Internet..…in the social support… …in the purposes for which people use the technology.” (p. 8) |
| Warschauer | 2011 | Outcomes and tangible benefits | Third-level digital divide | “the digital divide refers to social stratification due to unequal ability to access, adapt, and create knowledge via use of information and communication technologies (ICT).” (p. 5) |
j.quageo-2023-0042.tab.015
| Source | Year | Scale | Units | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| First-level indicators – access and skills | ||||
| Percentage of households with broadband access | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 | % households |
| Percentage of households with fixed broadband access | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 | % households |
| Percentage of households with mobile broadband access | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 | % households |
| Length of fibre | BTK | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | Km |
| Ratio of 3G + 4.5G subscriptions | BTK | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | % inhabitants |
| Second-level indicators – usage | ||||
| Percentage of computer usage | TurkStat | 2018 | TR1 | % inhabitants |
| Percentage of individuals using the Internet (regular) | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 | % inhabitants |
| Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | BTK | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | % inhabitants |
| Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | BTK | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | % inhabitants |
| Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | BTK | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | % inhabitants |
| Third-level indicators – outcomes | ||||
| ICT companies in the business population | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | Total ICT eneterprise number |
| Total number of businesses making e-commerce | ETBIS | 2022 | TR1 – TR3 | Total business number |
| ICT goods and services as a share of international trade | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | ($) |
| Additional divides – demographic and socio-economic factors | ||||
| Disparity in Internet use between men and women | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 | Women – man differences |
| Percentage of age dependency | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 – TR3 | Ratio of independent population |
| Mean year of schooling | Ministry of Education | 2019 | TR1 – TR3 | Mean year |
| Secondary gross enrolment ratio | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | Gross enrolment ratio |
| Percentage of tertiary graduates | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | % total population |
| Poverty ratio | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR2 | % total population |
| Urban and rural households | TurkStat | 2021 | TR1 – TR3 | % inhabitants live in cities |
| R&D expenditure as a percentage of GDP | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR2 | (TL) |
| GDP | TurkStat | 2020 | TR1 – TR3 | (TL) |
Provincial digital divide results with top and bottom scores.
| I | II | III | IV | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TR100 | Istanbul | 0.25 | 0.35 | 1.98 | 0.15 |
| TR310 | Izmir | 0.18 | 0.30 | 0.70 | 0.14 |
| TR510 | Ankara | 0.19 | 0.32 | 0.35 | 0.21 |
| TR411 | Bursa | 0.18 | 0.29 | 0.10 | 0.15 |
| TR421 | Kocaeli | 0.17 | 0.29 | 0.06 | 0.17 |
| TR611 | Antalya | 0.18 | 0.29 | 0.08 | 0.13 |
| TRB23 | Bitlis | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.06 |
| TRA23 | Iğdir | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| TRA22 | Kars | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| TRC33 | Şirnak | 0.17 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| TRA21 | Ağrı | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
| TRB22 | Muş | 0.16 | 0.18 | 0.00 | 0.04 |
Second-Level Digital Divide – 30 indicators
| Index | Indicator |
|---|---|
| IDI | 1. Fixed telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants |
| 2. Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| 6. Percentage of individuals using the Internet | |
| 7. Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| 8. Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| DESI | 1b3 Enterprises providing ICT training |
| 3a1 SMEs with at least a basic level of digital intensity | |
| 3b1 Electronic information sharing | |
| 3b2 Social media | |
| 3b3 Big data | |
| 3b4 Cloud | |
| 3b5 AI | |
| 3b7 e-Invoices | |
| 4a1 e-Government users | |
| 4a2 Pre-filled forms | |
| 4a3 Digital public services for citizens | |
| 4a4 Digital public services for businesses | |
| 4a5 Open data | |
| Digital Toolkit | Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants |
| Mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| Internet users as a share of individuals | |
| Share of individuals using the Internet to interact with public authorities | |
| Share of Internet users who have purchased online | |
| Share of businesses with a web presence | |
| Share of businesses purchasing cloud services | |
| Percentage of individuals who use digital equipment at work that telework from home once a week or more | |
| OECD Digital Government Index | |
| Health data sharing intensity | |
| OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index | |
| OECD Foreign Direct Investment Regulatory Restrictiveness Index |
Three current international indexes with their sources and key themes.
| Name | Source | Key dimensions | Number of indicators |
|---|---|---|---|
| IDI | ICT access; ICT use; ICT skills | 12 | |
| DESI | ( |
Human capital; Connectivity; Integration of digital technology; Digital public services | 33 |
| Going Digital Toolkit | ( |
Access; Use; Innovation; Jobs; Society; Trust; Market openness | 43 |
Results of PCA.
| Eigenvalues | Share of variance explained (%) | Cumulative share of variance explained (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| First-level indicators – access and skills. Bartlett’s test: Approx. chi-square (14.126) (p = 0.03, p < 0.05) | |||
| Component 1 | 2.266 | 75.538 | 75.538 |
| Component 2 | 0.567 | 18.908 | 94.447 |
| Component 3 | 0.167 | 5.553 | 100.000 |
| Second-level indicators – usage. Bartlett’s test: Approx. chi-square (92.191) (p = 0.01, p < 0.05) | |||
| Component 1 | 4.416 | 88.316 | 88.316 |
| Component 2 | 0.428 | 8.561 | 96.877 |
| Component 3 | 0.123 | 2.451 | 99.328 |
| Component 4 | 0.031 | 0.617 | 99.946 |
| Component 5 | 0.003 | 0.054 | 100.000 |
| Third-level indicators – outcomes. Bartlett’s test: Approx. chi-square (25.286) (p = 0.01, p < 0.05) | |||
| Component 1 | 2.580 | 86.008 | 86.008 |
| Component 2 | 0.349 | 11.649 | 97.657 |
| Component 3 | 0.070 | 2.343 | 100.000 |
| Additional divides – demographic and socio-economic factors. Bartlett’s test: Approx. chi-square (40.276) (p = 0.01, p < 0.05) | |||
| Component 1 | 3.614 | 72.281 | 72.281 |
| Component 2 | 0.855 | 17.098 | 89.380 |
| Component 3 | 0.346 | 6.922 | 96.301 |
| Component 4 | 0.112 | 2.231 | 98.533 |
| Component 5 | 0.073 | 1.467 | 100.000 |
First-Level Digital Divide – 19 indicators
| Index | Indicator |
|---|---|
| IDI | 3. International Internet bandwidth (bit/s) per Internet user |
| 4. Percentage of households with a computer | |
| 5. Percentage of households with Internet access | |
| DESI | 1a1 At least basic digital skills |
| 1a2 Above basic digital skills | |
| 1a3 At least basic software skills | |
| 2a1 Overall fixed broadband take-up | |
| 2a2 At least 100 Mbps fixed broadband take-up | |
| 2a3 At least 1 Gbps take-up | |
| 2b1 Fast broadband (NGA) coverage | |
| 2b2 Fixed Very High Capacity Network (VHCN) coverage | |
| 2c1 4G coverage | |
| 2c2 5G readiness | |
| 2c3 5G coverage | |
| 2c4 Mobile broadband take-up | |
| Digital Toolkit | M2M (Machine-to-machine) SIM cards per 100 inhabitants |
| Share of households with broadband connections | |
| Share of businesses with broadband contracted speed of 30 Mbps or more | |
| Share of the population covered by at least a 4G mobile network |
ICT Development Index (IDI) (ITU 2017).
| Dimension | Indicator |
|---|---|
| ICT Access 40% | 1. Fixed telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants |
| 2. Mobile cellular telephone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| 3. International Internet bandwidth (bit/s) per Internet user | |
| 4. Percentage of households with a computer | |
| 5. Percentage of households with Internet access | |
| ICT Use 40% | 6. Percentage of individuals using the Internet |
| 7. Fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| 8. Active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants | |
| ICT Skills 20% | 9. Mean year of schooling |
| 10. Secondary gross enrolment ratio | |
| 11. Tertiary gross enrolment ratio |