Natural products and secondary metabolites produced by living systems, mostly plants, have a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory ones, and a high potential for treating human diseases, such as coronary heart diseases, cancer, diabetes, and infectious diseases (Chabán et al. 2019). According to the World Health Organization, 65–80% of the world’s population depends on traditional medicine to treat many diseases (Chew et al. 2011). α-Viniferin is a phytochemical compound extracted from
Skin irritation test result.
Material’s name | No. responder | 30 min. after patch removal (48 hrs.) | 24 hrs. after patch removal (72 hrs.) | Meana | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.5+ | 1+ | 2+ | 3+ | 4+ | mean | 0.5+ | 1+ | 2+ | 3+ | 4+ | mean | |||
1. α-viniferin 10 | 0 | –b | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | 0.00 |
2. α-viniferin 100 | 0 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | 0.00 |
3. α-viniferin 1,000 | 0 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | 0.00 |
4. Negative control | 0 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | – | – | – | – | – | 0.00 | 0.00 |
– Mean: (mean value of skin reaction at 48 hrs. + mean value of skin reaction at 72 hrs.)/2. (Mean score: 0.00 ~ 0.87, low; 0.88 ~ 2.42, mild; 2.43 ~ 3.44, moderate; 3.45 <, severe)
– “-“: No reaction. (Reaction score: 0, –, no reaction; 0.5, ±, Barely perceptible erythema, Doubtful or questionable reaction; 1, +, Slight erythema, either spotty or diffuse; 2, ++, Moderate uniform erythema; 3, +++, Intense redness with edema; 4, ++++, Intense redness with edema and vesicles).
Number of genes (FC cutoff > 2 and 5) regulated in
according to functional class.
Functional classification | Total number of genes | 2-fold | 5-fold | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 × MIC | 2 × MIC | 1 × MIC | 2 × MIC | ||||||
up | down | up | down | up | down | up | down | ||
1 DNA metabolism | 92 | 9 | 2 | 20 | 11 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
2 Energy metabolism | 126 | 10 | 17 | 22 | 31 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 11 |
3 Protein synthesis | 85 | 5 | 4a | 12 | 15 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
4 Transport and binding proteins | 195 | 29b | 32b | 42a | 48b | 4 | 4 | 16b | 19 |
5 Protein fate | 77 | 5 | 4a | 13 | 10 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 1 |
6 Amino acid biosynthesis | 62 | 13b | 5 | 25 | 5a | 3a | 2 | 11 | 2 |
7 Signal transduction | 13 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
8 Purines, pyrimidines, nucleosides, and nucleotides | 37 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
9 Regulatory functions; Signal transduction | 9 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
10 Cellular processes | 90 | 9 | 11 | 15 | 21 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 8 |
11 Biosynthesis of cofactors, prosthetic groups, and carriers; Transport and binding proteins | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
12 Central intermediary metabolism | 21 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 |
13 Regulatory functions | 55 | 3 | 8 | 6 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
14 DNA metabolism; Regulatory functions; Cellular processes | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
15 Cell envelope | 50 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 11 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
16 Cellular processes; Transport and binding proteins | 13 | 5b | 2 | 5 | 1 | 2a | 0 | 3a | 0 |
17 Energy metabolism; Purines, pyrimidines, nucleosides, and nucleotides | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
18 Transcription | 22 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
19 Biosynthesis of cofactors, prosthetic groups, and carriers | 99 | 8 | 7a | 25a | 13a | 1 | 3 | 6 | 2 |
20 Protein fate; Energy metabolism | 4 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
21 Fatty acid and phospholipid metabolism | 24 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
22 Transport and binding proteins; Signal transduction | 10 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
23 Hypothetical proteins | 26 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
24 Cell envelope; Central intermediary metabolism | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
25 DNA metabolism; Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
26 Cellular processes; DNA metabolism | 8 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4a | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
27 Protein fate; Transport and binding proteins | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
28 Regulatory functions; Purines, pyrimidines, nucleosides, and nucleotides | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
29 Protein fate; Cellular processes | 6 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
30 Energy metabolism; Central intermediary metabolism | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
31 Regulatory functions; Cellular processes | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
32 Signal transduction; Regulatory functions | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
33 DNA metabolism; Cellular processes | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
34 Biosynthesis of cofactors, prosthetic groups, and carriers; Central intermediary metabolism | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
35 Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions | 32 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
36 Protein synthesis; Cellular processes; Regulatory functions | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
37 Cellular processes; Cell envelope | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
38 Transport and binding proteins; Cellular processes | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
39 Protein fate; Cell envelope | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
40 Cell envelope; Cellular processes | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
41 Cell envelope; Transport and binding proteins | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
42 Regulatory functions; Transport and binding proteins | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
43 DNA metabolism; Regulatory functions | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
44 Cellular processes; Protein fate | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
45 Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions; Regulatory functions | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
46 Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions; Hypothetical proteins | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
47 Protein fate; Signal transduction | 3 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
48 Regulatory functions; Amino acid biosynthesis | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
49 Purines, pyrimidines, nucleosides, and nucleotides; Central intermediary metabolism | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
50 Protein synthesis; Biosynthesis of cofactors, prosthetic groups, and carriers | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
51 Regulatory functions; Central intermediary metabolism | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
52 Protein fate; Regulatory functions | 3 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
53 Regulatory functions; Energy metabolism | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
54 Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions; Protein fate | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
55 Regulatory functions; Central intermediary metabolism; Signal transduction | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
56 Central intermediary metabolism; Cell envelope | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
57 Cellular processes; Mobile and extrachromosomal element functions | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
58 Protein fate; Purines, pyrimidines, nucleosides, and nucleotides | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
a –
Number of (FC cutoff > 2 and 5) specific regulated gene groups in
according to functional classification.
Functional classification | Total number of genes | 2-fold | 5-fold | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 × MIC | 2 × MIC | 1 × MIC | 2 × MIC | ||||||
up | down | up | down | up | down | up | down | ||
3 Protein synthesis | |||||||||
a tRNA aminoacylation | 12 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
b Ribosomal proteins: synthesis and modification | 25 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
c tRNA and rRNA base modification | 37 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
d Other | 85 | 9 | 8 | 16 | 18 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 2 |
e Translation factors | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
4 Transport and binding proteins | |||||||||
a Amino acids, peptides and, amines | 32 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 4a | 1 |
b Cations and iron carrying compounds | 72 | 8 | 9 | 12 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 |
c Carbohydrates, organic alcohols, and acids | 27 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 5b |
d Anions | 18 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 10 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 |
e Anions; Other | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1a | 0 |
f Other | 85 | 9 | 8 | 16 | 18 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 2 |
g Nucleosides, purines and, pyrimidines | 6 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 5b | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3b |
h Unknown substrate | 20 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
i Cations and iron carrying compounds; Anions | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
5 Protein fate | |||||||||
a Protein and peptide secretion and trafficking | 27 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
b Degradation of proteins, peptides, and glycopeptides | 18 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
c Protein modification and repair | 20 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
d Protein folding and stabilization | 4 | 2a | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2b | 1 | 2a | 1 |
e Degradation of proteins, peptides, and glycopeptides; Protein folding and stabilization | 6 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
f Degradation of proteins, peptides, and glycopeptides; Protein modification and repair | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
g Protein and peptide secretion and trafficking; Protein modification and repair | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
6 Amino acid biosynthesis | |||||||||
a Aspartate family | 15 | 3 | 1 | 8b | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3a | 0 |
b Serine family | 11 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
c Glutamate family | 7 | 0 | 3a | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
d Pyruvate family | 12 | 5b | 1 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 1 |
e Histidine family | 8 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
f Aromatic amino acid family | 9 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 2b | 0 | 2 | 0 |
16 Cellular processes; Transport and binding proteins | |||||||||
a Toxin production and resistance; Other | 13 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2a | 0 | 3a | 0 |
b Toxin production and resistance; Unknown substrate | 3 | 2a | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
c Detoxification; Other | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
19 Biosynthesis of cofactors, prosthetic groups, and carriers | |||||||||
a Glutathione and analogs | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
b Menaquinone and ubiquinone | 17 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
c Other | 85 | 9 | 8 | 16 | 18 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 2 |
d Heme, porphyrin, and cobalamin | 19 | 3 | 2 | 7a | 2 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
e Folic acid | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
f Pyridoxine | 2 | 0 | 2a | 0 | 2a | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
g Riboflavin, FMN, and FAD | 6 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
h Thiamine | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
i Lipoate | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
j Other; Thiamine; Pyridoxine | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
k Pantothenate and coenzyme A | 6 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
l Biotin | 6 | 2 | 0 | 4a | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2a | 0 |
m Pyridine nucleotides | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
n Molybdopterin | 4 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
26 Cellular processes; DNA metabolism | |||||||||
a Cell division; Chromosome-associated proteins | 8 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4a | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
–
In a 10-day clinical trial, we investigated the decolonization efficiency of α-viniferin as an
In this study, we analyzed the nasal swab samples through culture-based techniques to investigate the antimicrobial effectiveness of α-viniferin against the nares normal microflora,
In addition, we used NGS-based 16S rRNA profiling to investigate further the clinical efficiency of α-viniferin against the
RNA sequencing technology is a powerful tool for studying the molecular basis of genetic interactions; it makes it possible to examine the relatively unbiased measurements of expression levels across the entire length of a transcript using high-throughput sequencing platforms (Pickrell et al. 2010). In the present study we did RNA sequencing to understand α-viniferin-induced gene expression in