Understanding the pathogenesis, clinical, laboratory diagnosis and treatment of the recent monkeypox virus outbreak

1 Srivastava Ga., Srivastava Go. Human monkeypox disease. Clinics in Dermatology, Volume 40, Issue 5, Page 604. 2022; ISSN 0738-081X. DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2022.08.009 Search in Google Scholar

2 ICTV - International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Virus Taxonomy. Poxviridae. (https://ictv.global/report/chapter/poxviridae/poxviridae/orthopoxvirus ). Search in Google Scholar

3 Oliveira GP, Rodrigues RAL, Lima MT, Drumond BP, Abrahão JS. Poxvirus Host Range Genes and Virus-Host Spectrum: A Critical Review. Viruses. 2017 Nov 7;9(11):331. DOI: 10.3390/v9110331 Search in Google Scholar

4 WHO - World Health Organisation. History of smallpox vaccination. (https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/history-of-vaccination/history-of-smallpox-vaccination ). Search in Google Scholar

5 Breman JG, Kalisa-Ruti, Steniowski MV, Zanotto E, Gromyko AI, Arita I. Human monkeypox, 1970-79. Bull World Health Organ. 1980;58(2):165-82. Search in Google Scholar

6 Rao AK, Schulte J, Chen TH, Hughes CM, Davidson W, Neff JM, et al. Monkeypox in a Traveler Returning from Nigeria - Dallas, Texas, July 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Apr 8;71(14):509-16. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7114a1 Search in Google Scholar

7 Sejvar JJ, Chowdary Y, Schomogyi M, Stevens J, Patel J, Karem K, et al. Human Monkeypox infection: a family cluster in the midwestern United States. J Infect Dis. 2004 Nov 15;190(10):1833-40. DOI: 10.1086/425039 Search in Google Scholar

8 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Update: multistate outbreak of monkeypox-Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003 Jul 11;52(27):642-6. Search in Google Scholar

9 European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Monkeypox cases in the UK imported by travellers returning from Nigeria, 2018 - 21 September 2018. ECDC: Stockholm; 2018. Search in Google Scholar

10 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Outbreak 2022: Situation Summary - Past U.S. Cases and Outbreaks. (https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/Monkeypox/outbreak/us-outbreaks.html ). Search in Google Scholar

11 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2022-2023 Mpox Otubreak Global Map. (https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/response/2022/world-map.html ). Search in Google Scholar

12 Pan American Health Organization. News. WHO declares the end of the mpox emergency, and calls for sustained efforts for long-term management of the disease. (https://www.paho.org/en/news/11-5-2023-who-declares-end-mpox-emergency-calls-sustained-efforts-long-term-management-disease ). Search in Google Scholar

13 Likos AM, Sammons SA, Olson VA, Frace AM, Li Y, Olsen-Rasmussen M, et al. A tale of two clades: Monkeypox viruses. J Gen Virol. 2005 Oct;86(Pt 10):2661-72. DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81215-0 Search in Google Scholar

14 Pauli G, Blümel J, Burger R, Drosten C, Gröner A, Gürtler L, et al. Orthopox Viruses: Infections in Humans. Transfus Med Hemother. 2010;37(6):351-64. DOI: 10.1159/000322101 Search in Google Scholar

15 Isidro J, Borges V, Pinto M, Sobral D, Santos JD, Nunes A, et al. Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus. Nat Med. 2022 Aug;28(8):1569-72. Erratum in: Nat Med. 2022 Oct;28(10):2220-1. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-02036-2 Search in Google Scholar

16 Alcamí A. Pathogenesis of the circulating mpox virus and its adaptation to humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2023 Mar 28;120(13):e2301662120. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2301662120 Search in Google Scholar

17 Anwar F, Haider F, Khan S, Ahmad I, Ahmed N, Imran M, et al. Clinical Manifestation, Transmission, Pathogenesis, and Diagnosis of Monkeypox Virus: A Comprehensive Review. Life (Basel). 2023 Feb 14;13(2):522. DOI: 10.3390/life13020522 Search in Google Scholar

18 Petersen BW, Damon IK. 135 - Orthopoxviruses: Vaccinia (Smallpox Vaccine), Variola (Smallpox), Monkeypox, and Cowpox. Editor(s): John E. Bennett, Raphael Dolin, Martin J. Blaser. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases (Eighth Edition), W.B. Saunders, 2015. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4557-4801-3.00135-1 Search in Google Scholar

19 Moss B. Membrane fusion during poxvirus entry. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2016 Dec;60:89-96. doi: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.015. Epub 2016 Jul 14. PMID: 27423915; PMCID: PMC5161597. DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.015 Search in Google Scholar

20 McFadden G. Poxvirus tropism. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 Mar;3(3):201-13. DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1099 Search in Google Scholar

21 Schmidt FI, Bleck CK, Mercer J. Poxvirus host cell entry. Curr Opin Virol. 2012 Feb;2(1):20-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2011.11.007 Search in Google Scholar

22 Antinori A, Mazzotta V, Vita S, Carletti F, Tacconi D, Lapini LE, et al. Epidemiological, clinical and virological characteristics of four cases of Monkeypox support transmission through sexual contact, Italy, May 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jun;27(22):2200421. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200421 Search in Google Scholar

23 Hammerschlag Y, MacLeod G, Papadakis G, Adan Sanchez A, Druce J, Taiaroa G, et al. Monkeypox infection presenting as genital rash, Australia, May 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Jun;27(22):2200411. DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.22.2200411 Search in Google Scholar

24 Farahat RA, Sah R, El-Sakka AA, Benmelouka AY, Kundu M, Labieb F, et al. Human monkeypox disease (MPX). Infez Med. 2022 Sep 1;30(3):372-391. DOI: 10.53854/liim-3003-6 Search in Google Scholar

25 Silva SJRD, Kohl A, Pena L, Pardee K. Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of monkeypox (mpox): Current status and future directions. iScience. 2023 Jun 16;26(6):106759. DOI: 10.1016/j. isci.2023.106759 Search in Google Scholar

26 Bhunu CP, Mushayabasa S, Hyman JM. Modelling HIV/AIDS and monkeypox co-infection. Appl Math Comput. 2012 May 15;218(18):9504-9518. DOI: 10.1016/j.amc.2012.03.042 Search in Google Scholar

27 León-Figueroa DA, Barboza JJ, Saldaña-Cumpa HM, Moreno-Ramos E, Bonilla-Aldana DK, Valladares-Garrido MJ, et al. Detection of Monkeypox Virus according to The Collection Site of Samples from Confirmed Cases: A Systematic Review. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2022 Dec 22;8(1):4. DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8010004 Search in Google Scholar

28 Jezek Z, Szczeniowski M, Paluku KM, Mutombo M. Human monkeypox: clinical features of 282 patients. J Infect Dis. 1987 Aug;156(2):293-8. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/156.2.293 Search in Google Scholar

29 Jezek Z, Grab B, Szczeniowski M, Paluku KM, Mutombo M. Clinico-epidemiological features of monkeypox patients with an animal or human source of infection. Bull World Health Organ. 1988;66(4):459-64. Search in Google Scholar

30 Damon IK. Status of human Monkeypox: clinical disease, epidemiology and research. Vaccine. 2011 Dec 30;29 Suppl 4:D54-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.014 Search in Google Scholar

31 Simmons WF, Chan JD, Budak JZ, Dhanireddy S, Green ML, Jain R, et al. Antibiotic prescribing patterns for bacterial superinfection of mpox: A retrospective cohort study in an urban center. Antimicrob Steward Healthc Epidemiol. 2023 Jun 29;3(1):e108. DOI: 10.1017/ash.2023.158 Search in Google Scholar

32 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. PoxVirus. Mpox. Health Departments. (https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/health-departments/case-reporting.html) Search in Google Scholar

33 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim Biosafety Guidelines for Laboratory Personnel Handling Human and Animal Specimens for Monkeypox Testing. (https://www.aphl.org/programs/preparedness/Smallpox/pdf/labbiosafetyguide.pdf) Search in Google Scholar

34 Li Y, Olson VA, Laue T, Laker MT, Damon IK. Detection of monkeypox virus with real-time PCR assays. J Clin Virol. 2006 Jul;36(3):194-203. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2006.03.012 Search in Google Scholar

35 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Specimen Collection Procedures. 2023. (https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/lab-personnel/specimen-collection/specimen-collection-procedures.html) Search in Google Scholar

36 Zhou Y, Chen Z. Mpox: a review of laboratory detection techniques. Arch Virol. 2023 Aug 5;168(8):221. DOI: 10.1007/s00705-023-05848-w Search in Google Scholar

37 Barboza JJ, León-Figueroa DA, Saldaña-Cumpa HM, Valladares-Garrido MJ, Moreno-Ramos E, Sah R, et al. Virus Identification for Monkeypox in Human Seminal Fluid Samples: A Systematic Review. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2023 Mar 14;8(3):173. DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed8030173 Search in Google Scholar

38 Reed KD, Melski JW, Graham MB, Regnery RL, Sotir MJ, Wegner MV, et al. The detection of monkeypox in humans in the Western Hemisphere. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jan 22;350(4):342-50. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa032299 Search in Google Scholar

39 Petersen E, Kantele A, Koopmans M, Asogun D, Yinka-Ogunleye A, Ihekweazu C, Zumla A. Human Monkeypox: Epidemiologic and Clinical Characteristics, Diagnosis, and Prevention. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2019 Dec;33(4):1027. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2019.03.001 Search in Google Scholar

40 Thakur V, Thakur P, Srivastava S, Kumar P. Monkeypox virus (MPX) in humans a concern: Trespassing the global boundaries - Correspondence. Int J Surg. 2022 Aug;104:106703. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2022.106703 Search in Google Scholar

41 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Outbreak 2022: Situation Summary - 2022 Monkeypox Outbreak Global Map. (https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/Monkeypox/response/2022/world-map.html). Search in Google Scholar

42 Edouard Mathieu, Fiona Spooner, Saloni Dattani, Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser (2022) - “Mpox (monkeypox)”. Published online at OurWorldInData.org. (https://ourworldindata.org/monkeypox). Search in Google Scholar

43 Malik S, Ahmad T, Ahsan O, Muhammad K, Waheed Y. Recent Developments in Mpox Prevention and Treatment Options. Vaccines (Basel). 2023 Feb 21;11(3):500. DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11030500 Search in Google Scholar

44 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mpox. Interim Clinical Considerations for Use of JYNNEOS and ACAM2000 Vaccines during the 2022 U.S. Mpox Outbreak (02 August 2023). (https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/clinicians/vaccines/vaccine-considerations.html) Search in Google Scholar

45 Payne AB, Ray LC, Cole MM, Canning M, Houck K, Shah HJ, et al. Reduced Risk for Mpox After Receipt of 1 or 2 Doses of JYNNEOS Vaccine Compared with Risk Among Unvaccinated Persons - 43 U.S. Jurisdictions, July 31-October 1, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022 Dec 9;71(49):1560-1564. DOI: 10.15585/mmwr. mm7149a5 Search in Google Scholar

46 Siegrist EA, Sassine J. Antivirals with Activity Against Mpox: A Clinically Oriented Review. Clin Infect Dis. 2023 Jan 6;76(1):155-164. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciac622 Search in Google Scholar

47 Pinto P, Costa MA, Gonçalves MFM, Rodrigues AG, Lisboa C. Mpox Person-to-Person Transmission-Where Have We Got So Far? A Systematic Review. Viruses. 2023 Apr 28;15(5):1074. DOI: 10.3390/v15051074 Search in Google Scholar

48 Chauhan RP, Fogel R, Limson J. Overview of Diagnostic Methods, Disease Prevalence and Transmission of Mpox (Formerly Monkeypox) in Humans and Animal Reservoirs. Microorganisms. 2023 Apr 30;11(5):1186. DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051186 Search in Google Scholar