Over 2,240 species of butterflies belonging to 17 families have been identified in Poland (Bogdanowicz et al. 2004). Of them, 18% constitute harmful entomofauna found on vegetable crops. The first report on pests of vegetable crops in Poland was published by Gustaw Belke (1861). Systematic observations of harmful entomofauna occurring in agricultural fields in Poland began in 1919 (Romaniszyn & Schille 1929; Kinel & Kuntze 1931; Ruszkowski 1933). Initially, they concerned agricultural areas within the borders of pre-war Poland (until 1939), and later on areas of the present country's territory (after 1945).
During 1861–2015, 63 phytophagous butterfly species belonging to 17 families were recorded at the level causing measurable damage to vegetable crops (Table 1). This review covers 80 species and botanical varieties of vegetable species that are hosts of the preimaginal stages of these insect species.
Harmful butterfly species recorded on vegetable crops in Poland
Family | Number of species | |
---|---|---|
on vegetable crops | total in Poland* | |
Epermeniidae – fringe-tufted moths | 1 | 12 |
Depressariidae – depressariid moths | 4 | 63 |
Gelechiidae – twirler moths or gelechiid moths | 2 + 1** | 200 |
Geometridae – geometrid moths or measuring worms | 1 | 410 |
Gracillariidae – leaf blotch miner moths | 2 | 111 |
Hepialidae – ghost moths or swift moths | 1 | 6 |
Nepticulidae – pygmy leafmining moths | 1 | 99 |
Erebidae – tiger moths | 2 | 45 |
Lymantriidae – tussock moths | 1 | 16 |
Noctuidae – owlet moths | 24 | 477 |
Nymphalidae – brushfooted butterflies | 1 | 75 |
Papilionidae – swallowtails butterflies | 1 | 5 |
Pieridae – yellow-white butterflies | 4 | 17 |
Pyralidae – snout moths | 5 | 242 |
Tortricidae – leaf rollers moths | 9 | 446 |
Acrolepiidae – false diamondback moths | 1 | 8 |
Plutellidae – diamondback moths | 1 | 7 |
According to Karsholt and Razowski (1996), and Bogdanowicz et al. (2004)
New phytophagous species in Poland – South American tomato moth (
Butterfly imagines feed on liquid food, primarily flower nectar and juices leaking from plants or from fermenting fruit. They also use the water found in puddles or shallow ponds. Pre-imaginal stages – caterpillars – feed on the underground and aboveground parts of plants, including their generative organs, at all stages of development, from germinating seeds to the harvesting stage. Besides vegetables, they colonize also wild plant species.
When discussing the importance of individual species, biological and ecological factors should be considered in determining the risk periods during the growing season, from sowing to harvesting. The harmful entomofauna occurring in agrocenoses in the countries neighboring Poland was also taken into account.
The taxonomy of the pests was based on the list of species published in “Fauna Europaea” (
Lepidoptera species occurring on Brassica vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |
---|---|---|
leaf Brassica vegetables | root Brassica vegetables | |
Erebidae | ||
C | ||
Noctuidae | ||
C | C | |
A | A | |
B | B | |
B | C | |
B | C | |
A | A | |
C | C | |
C | C | |
Pieridae | ||
C | C | |
A | A | |
C | C | |
A | A | |
Pyralidae | ||
C | ||
C | ||
Tortricidae | ||
C | ||
C | ||
C | ||
Plutellidae | ||
A | A | |
Soil root pests* | A | A |
A – species posing a threat during each season in all areas of cultivation
B – species posing periodic threats
C – species posing a local threat
described in the subsection Underground root pests
Host plants:
broccoli ( kale ( cauliflower ( Brussels sprouts ( white cabbage ( red cabbage ( Savoy cabbage ( kohlrabi ( rutabaga ( horseradish ( turnip ( black radish ( radish ( wild Brassica plants.
Brassica vegetables have been widely cultivated in Poland for hundreds of years. They come from the
Individual butterfly species damage the aboveground, underground and generative parts of the abovementioned crops during the whole growing season.
Significant damage to the above-ground parts of plants is caused by caterpillars of Noctuid moths. Two species are dominant:
Species from the Pieridae family, such as cabbage butterfly (
Species belonging to the genus
In the 1920s and 1930s, cauliflower was damaged by
Lepidoptera species occurring on bulbous vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence | ||
---|---|---|---|
onion | garlic | leek | |
Noctuidae | |||
C | |||
C | |||
Pyralidae | |||
C | |||
Acrolepiidae | |||
A | A | A | |
Soil root pests* | A | B | A |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
onion ( garlic ( leek (
The cultivation of bulbous vegetables began in Poland in the fourteenth century. There are 24 species of
Onion leaves, until they collapse, are damaged by several polyphagous Lepidoptera species like:
Lepidoptera species occurring on nightshade vegetables (Solanaceae)
Species | Frequency of occurrence | ||
---|---|---|---|
tomato | peppers | eggplant | |
Gelechiidae | |||
B | |||
Erebidae | |||
C | |||
Noctuidae | |||
B | B | B | |
B | |||
B | |||
C | C | C | |
C | C | C | |
C | B | C | |
C | C | C | |
Pyralidae | |||
C | |||
Soil root pests* | C | C | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
pepper ( tomato ( eggplant (
The oldest record concerning the introduction of nightshade vegetables in Poland relates to the eggplant, grown in the second half of the eighteenth century. All species of nightshade vegetables are cultivated in an annual cycle.
The most frequently reported lepidopteran pest on tomato, eggplant and pepper plantations is
The common pests on tomatoes are
Damage to pepper plants by caterpillars of
Tomato fruit can be damaged by caterpillars of the Erebidae family.
A new pest of tomato is
Lepidoptera species occurring on cucurbit vegetables (Cucurbitaceae)
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |
---|---|---|
cucumber | pumpkin | |
Noctuidae | ||
C | C | |
Tortricidae | ||
C | C | |
Soil root pests* | C | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
pumpkin ( cucumber (
The tradition of growing cucumbers in Europe dates back to the tenth century. In Poland, their cultivation become popular in the sixteenth century. The remaining cucurbits were introduced later. All species and cultivars of cucurbits are grown in the annual cycle.
The most dangerous pest of cucumber and pumpkin is
Lepidoptera species occurring on Apiaceae vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
carrot | parsley | celery | parsnip | dill | |
Epermeniidae | |||||
C | B | ||||
Depressariidae | |||||
B | C | C | B | ||
C | C | ||||
C | C | ||||
C | |||||
Noctuidae | |||||
C | C | ||||
C | C | ||||
C | C | C | |||
C | C | ||||
C | |||||
Papilionidae | |||||
C | C | C | |||
Pyralidae | |||||
C | |||||
C | |||||
Tortricidae | |||||
C | |||||
C | |||||
Soil root pests* | B | B | B | B | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
dill ( carrot ( parsley ( parsnip ( celery (
Cultivation of Apiaceae vegetables was popularized in Poland in the seventeenth century. Carrots, parsley, celery and parsnip are grown in a biennial cycle, and garden dill in annual cultivation.
During the first year of cultivation, carrot, parsnip, parsley and celery plants are damaged by the caterpillars of
Plants on seed plantations are often damaged by species of the family Depressariidae, mostly on dill, carrot, parsley and parsnip (Beiger 2001).
Lepidoptera species registered on legume vegetables (Fabaceae)
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
pea | broad bean | bean | lentil | |
Gelechiidae | ||||
C | ||||
Gracillariidae | ||||
C | ||||
Noctuidae | ||||
C | C | C | ||
C | ||||
C | ||||
B | C | |||
C | ||||
C | ||||
Nymphalidae | ||||
C | ||||
Pyralidae | ||||
C | ||||
Tortricidae | ||||
A | C | |||
C | C | |||
C | C | |||
C | C | C | ||
C | C | C | ||
C | C | C | C | |
B | C | C | ||
Soil root pests* | C | C | C | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
broad bean ( bean ( pea ( lentils (
Cultivation of legume vegetables in Poland became popular in the seventeenth century. Legumes are grown in an annual cycle. The study takes into account both legumes grown for green vegetables and for dry seeds.
The largest group of butterfly pests on legume vegetables are species of the Noctuidae family. The occurrence of butterflies belonging to the subfamily Hadeninae was noted already in the 1920s (Ruszkowski 1933). The most numerous are:
The greatest damage on peas, and to a lesser extent on broad beans, is caused by
Most of the above-mentioned pests occur also on other small- and large-seeded legume crops such as clover, alfalfa, vetch, field pea, soybean, and lu-pine. Cutworms (Noctuidae) as soil-borne pests are described in the subsection Underground root pests.
Lepidoptera species occurring on Asteraceae vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
lettuce | chicory | scorzonera | artichoke | |
Erebidae | ||||
C | ||||
Noctuidae | ||||
C | C | C | ||
C | C | C | ||
C | C | C | ||
B | C | C | ||
B | C | |||
Tortricidae | ||||
A | ||||
C | ||||
C | ||||
Soil root pests* | B | C | B | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
chicory ( artichoke ( lettuce ( scorzonera (
The vegetable crops of the Asteraceae family were popularized in Poland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. All cultivars of lettuce and artichoke are grown annually, and chicory and scorzonera are biennial crops.
The greatest damage to lettuce, chicory, scorzonera and artichoke plantations was caused by
Lepidoptera species occurring on Amaranth vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |
---|---|---|
root and leaf beet | spinach | |
Noctuidae | ||
B | B | |
B | C | |
C | C | |
C | C | |
C | C | |
C | C | |
C | C | |
C | ||
Pyralidae | ||
C | ||
Tortricidae | ||
C | C | |
C | ||
C | ||
Soil root pests* | B | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
red beet ( leaf red beet ( spinach (
In Poland, red beet and spinach were popularized at the beginning of the eighteenth century, whereas the leaf beet was known since the Piast times (from the eleventh century). Beets are grown in a two-year cycle and spinach in an annual cycle.
Lepidoptera species occurring on knotweed vegetables (Polygonaceae)
Species | Frequency of occurrence | |
---|---|---|
rhubarb | sorrel | |
Gelechiidae | ||
C | ||
Geometridae | ||
C | ||
Gracillariidae | ||
C | ||
Hepialidae | ||
C | C | |
Nepticulidae | ||
C | ||
Erebidae | ||
C | C | |
Noctuidae | ||
C | C | |
B | ||
C | C | |
A | C | |
B | C | |
C | C | |
B | B | |
Tortricidae | ||
C | ||
C | ||
C | ||
Soil root pests* | B | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plants:
rhubarb ( sorrel (
Rhubarb was popularized in Poland in the 1880s, and sorrel was known already in the Middle Ages. In the wild, sorrel grows in meadows, pastures and other green areas. Both species are perennial plants.
Species from the Noctuidae family are common on both crops.
Of other species,
Aboveground parts of sorrel are damaged by
Lepidoptera species occurring on asparaginous vegetables
Species | Frequency of occurrence |
---|---|
Soil root pests* | A |
Note: see Table 2
Host plant:
asparagus (
Wild asparagus, known also as sparrow grass, grows naturally in Southern Europe and Central Asia along sea and river coasts. Cultivated asparagus was imported to Poland from Southern Europe in the middle of the eighteenth century, and its cultivation was widespread in the second half of the nineteenth century. The host plant for pests is also ornamental asparagus of the genus
Lepidoptera species occurring on sweet corn (
Species | Frequency of occurrence |
---|---|
Lymantriidae | |
C | |
Noctuidae | |
B | |
C | |
C | |
C | |
C | |
C | |
Pyralidae | |
A | |
C | |
Tortricidae | |
B | |
Soil root pests* | C |
Note: see Table 2
Host plant:
sweet corn (
Sweet corn was introduced to Poland at the end of the eighteenth century. The corn cobs are harvested at the milk maturity stage, and later with mature kernels. The length of the vegetation period to the stage of milk maturity does not exceed 140 days, compared to 180–240 days to the mature stage. This difference has a significant impact on the number and extent of the pest's harmfulness. Corn is grown in an annual cycle.
Since the 1930s, the European corn borer (
In 2003, a new species from the Noctuidae family –
Host plant:
New Zealand spinach (
New Zealand spinach was brought to Europe in the late eighteenth century. In Poland, it become cultivated in the 1970s. It is harvested for consumption from June to the first frost in October. The vegetation period lasts approximately 150 days. New Zealand spinach is grown locally in an annual cycle, either from seeds or from seedlings.
It is inhabited by polyphagous species common to other crops. So far, species of the subfamily Agrotinae (Noctuidae) have been recorded at the threat level. They gnaw holes in the leaves of the older plants whereas the young plants are being completely destroyed (Meudec et al. 2005).
Host plant:
lamb's lettuce (
The first records of lamb's lettuce cultivation in Europe are dated back to the seventeenth century. In Poland, it became popular as an ingredient in dishes in recent years. lamb's lettuce is cultivated on a small scale by sowing in the spring for early-summer harvest, in July and August for autumn harvest, and in September for winter and early-spring harvest, in an annual cycle. The vegetation period of lamb's lettuce is 60 to 90 days.
Apart from species of the Noctuidae family moths found on lamb's lettuce, there are also species from the Tortricidae family of the genus
Species of cutworms (Noctuidae) occurring on vegetable crops
Species | Frequency of occurrence |
---|---|
A | |
A | |
A | |
A | |
A | |
C | |
C | |
C | |
C |
A – species that occurs cyclically on the gradation scale, posing a significant threat on entire area of cultivation
B – species that occurs cyclically at several years intervals
C – species occasionally causing local damage
Host plants:
all vegetable crops.
Underground root pests include polyphagous species of cutworms (Noctuidae), which are common in agrocenoses and nonagricultural areas. They are pests of the majority of agricultural, vegetable, fruit, and ornamental plants (Węgorek 1966; Lipa 1977).
Cutworms (Noctuidae) constitute the largest group of butterflies inhabiting vegetable agrocenoses. They account for over 64% of all butterflies occurring on vegetable crops.
Cutworms are eurytopic species inhabiting various environments. They occur usually at intervals of 3 to 4 years, depending on the biological cycle, climate, and soil factors, mainly air temperature and humidity as well as the content of organic substances in the soil. They undergo preimaginal stage development in the soil. The most numerous groups are species belonging to the genera:
Several species have dominated over the years:
Depending on geographical latitude, the course of the weather and access to host plants, cutworms occur in one or two generations per year. Females lay eggs on the near-ground parts of crop plants and weeds, mostly on the underside of the leaves, on plant debris left in the field, or directly into the ground. Young caterpillars (cutworms) begin feeding on the above-ground parts of plants, including weeds growing in inter-rows of crops. Older cutworms damage the roots by gnawing deep holes, mainly in red beets, carrots, parsley, and celery. They damage the storage organs, like bulbs of onions and garlic and taproots of beet, kohlrabi and radish, or nibble plants at the roots, e.g., early and late cultivars of Brassica vegetables, lettuce, corn, cucumber, tomato and chicory. In times of drought, the cutworms bite into the ripening fruits of tomatoes, peppers, eggplant and cucumbers (Węgorek 1966; Opyrchałowa 1976; Lipa 1977; Napiórkowska-Kowalik 1996; Szwejda 1998; Szwejda & Wrzodak 2007).
Cutworms inflict the heaviest losses in spring and in August–October. The population of cut-worms can be significantly reduced through consistent destruction of weeds, as females lay their eggs primarily on wild plants between the rows of crop plants.
Soil-borne pests are also commonly found in the neighboring countries: Germany, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and in countries east of the Bug river and non-European (Osmołowski 1980; Crüger 1991).
The hundreds of years of vegetable cultivation in our climatic zone significantly affected the formation of the group of pests and their natural enemies, which inhabit agricultural fields each year. Physiographic (topography), edaphic (soil type and its enrichment with organic substances), and climatic (weather) factors play a role in reducing the number of phytophagous entomofauna in agrocenoses. Biotic factors are also important, including changes in the population of pests towards the dominance of one species (interspecific and intraspecific competition) and changes in the abundance and activity of their natural enemies.
The species of pests described in this review are constantly present in cultivated fields during the growing season, damaging the above-ground and underground parts as well as the generative organs of the crop plants. Table 14 shows the species composition of Lepidoptera pests occurring on vegetable crops in Poland. The number of generations per year, the risk period as well as the preferred host plants were taken into account.
Lepidoptera species occurring on vegetable crops in Poland
Species | Number of generations | Risk period | Preferred host plants |
---|---|---|---|
Epermeniidae | |||
2–3 | VI–VII | carrot, celery | |
Depressariidae | |||
1 | VII–VIII | carrot, parsnip | |
1 | VII–VIII | dill, carrot, parsley, celery | |
2 | VII–VIII | carrot, parsnip | |
1–2 | VII–VIII | carrot | |
Gelechiidae | |||
2 | VI–VII | broad bean | |
2 | VI–VII | sorrel | |
Geometridae | |||
2 | VI–VII | sorrel | |
Gracillariidae | |||
2–3 | VI–VII | broad bean | |
2–3 | VI–VIII | sorrel | |
Hepialidae | |||
1 | VII–VIII | rhubarb, sorrel | |
Nepticulidae | |||
3 | VI–VIII | sorrel | |
Erebidae | |||
1–2 | VI–IX | Brassica vegetables, rhubarb, sorrel | |
1 | VI–VII | tomato, lettuce | |
Lymantriidae | |||
2–3 | VI | sweet corn | |
Noctuidae | |||
2 | VII–VIII | Brassica vegetables, rhubarb, sorrel | |
2 | VI–VII | sweet corn | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables, broad bean, red beet, pumpkin, bean, peas, artichoke, sweet corn, carrot, eggplant, cucumber, pepper, parsley, tomato, rhubarb, lettuce, scorzonera, sorrel, spinach | |
2 | V–VI | root and leaf red beet, tomato, rhubarb, sorrel | |
2 | V–VI | tomato, rhubarb, sorrel | |
2 | VI–VII | Brassica vegetables, red beet, onion, garlic, artichoke, eggplant, pepper, tomato, lettuce, scorzonera, spinach | |
2 | VI, VIII | Brassica vegetables, red beet, onion, peas, artichoke, eggplant, pepper, tomato, lettuce, scorzonera, spinach | |
1–2 | VI | peas, carrot | |
2 | VI, VIII | Brassica vegetables, red beet, onion, peas, artichoke, eggplant, pepper, tomato, rhubarb, lettuce, scorzonera, sorrel, spinach | |
2 | VI, VIII | Brassica vegetables, red beet, peas, carrot, eggplant, pepper, tomato, spinach | |
2 | VI, VIII–IX | Brassica vegetables, red beet, peas, carrot, tomato, carrot, parsley, spinach | |
1–2 | VII–IX | sorrel | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables, red beet, sweet corn, carrot, rhubarb, sorrel, spinach | |
various vegetable crops | |||
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
1–2 | VI, VIII | as above | |
2–3 | VI–IX | sweet corn | |
? | ? | sweet corn | |
Nymphalidae | |||
1–2 | VI | beans | |
Papilionidae | |||
1–2 | VI, VIII | dill, carrot, parsley | |
Pieridae | |||
2 | VII–VIII | Brassica vegetables | |
2 | VII–IX | as above | |
2 | VII–VIII | as above | |
2 | VIII–IX | as above | |
Pyralidae | |||
1 | VI–VIII | sweet corn, pepper | |
1–3 | VI–IX | red beet, beans, onion, sweet corn, carrot | |
2 | VI–VIII | carrot | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables | |
Tortricidae | |||
2 | V–VIII | Brassica vegetables, broad bean, red beet, beans, sweet corn, peas, carrot, rhubarb, lettuce, sorrel | |
1 | VI–VII | broad bean, beans, peas | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables, broad bean, red beet, beans, peas, rhubarb, spinach, sorrel | |
2 | VI–VIII | Brassica vegetables, broad bean, red beet, pumpkin, peas, lettuce, carrot, cucumber, rhubarb, sorrel | |
2 | VII–VIII | lettuce | |
1 | V–VII | broad bean, peas | |
2–3 | VI–VII | peas, lentils | |
2 | VI–VII | peas, lentils | |
Acrolepiidae | |||
2 | VI–VII | onion, garlic, leek | |
Plutellidae | |||
3 | IV–X | Brassica vegetables |
On Brassica vegetables, especially on white and Savoy cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower and horseradish, species such as
Underground parts of the plants are damaged by cutworms (Noctuidae), which belong to the group of soil-borne pests. They damage also the above-ground parts of plants at their early stages of development. Among over 60 species of cut-worms occurring in Polish agrocenoses, nine species listed in Table 13 are the most common.
Due to the observed climatic changes and dynamic increase in international trade, in exchange of crops, seedlings and seeds, it shall be expected that new species can be introduced in Polish agrocenoses. A constant threat, often at the gradation level, constitutes natural or forced migration of many species of pests to new areas, resulting from, inter alia, the change in the structure of crops, progressive urbanization industrialization of agricultural areas, and changes in the consumer preference. Also, uncontrolled plant and animal communities, as well as progressive soil mineralization caused by one-sided fertilization of crops, may have an unexpected effect on the populations of butterfly pests.