Introduction
Altruism, as an attitude or way of life, consists of values or virtues like love, benevolence, compassion and sacrificial behaviour. It may be defined as the ‘disinterested concern for the welfare of another, as an end in itself’ and traces its development to the French philosopher Auguste Comte.Simon Blackburn, ed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford: University Press, 2005), 12.
While the concept has long been in existence in many cultures and religions, the word itself takes its root from the French word autrui, which signifies other persons, and Comte intended it to be a term contrasted with egoism. Comte challenged egoism and argued that, when altruistic habits are cultivated, a society can be transformed for the better. In sum, it might be said that if the good of the other is put before the good of the individual everyone benefits.He writes: ‘We must therefore take this permanent antagonism between the social and personal instincts as the natural basis on which to construct the true theory of Affective Life ... We must intercalate, that is, between complete Egoism and complete Altruism, the various intermediate affections; the plan followed being always that of binary decomposition. Altruism, when energetic, always directs and stimulates intelligence more effectively than Egoism. It supplies a wider field, a more difficult aim, and also a larger share in the common effort. This last point especially has not been sufficiently considered. Egoism has no need of intelligence to perceive the object of desire; it has but to discover the modes of satisfying it. Altruism on the contrary cannot so much as become acquainted, without intellectual effort, with the external object towards which it is ever tending.’ Auguste Comte, System of Positive Policy, vol. 1, trans. J. Bridges (London: Longmans, Green, 1875), 559–60.
Altruism is often considered to be a ‘cornerstone’ for Christian ethics. Blackburn, 12.
While Comte tried to formulate his theory on a scientific basis, he too acknowledges his indebtedness to the Christian tradition.Auguste Comte, Lettres d’Auguste Comte à divers: −2. ptie. 1850–1857 (Paris: Fonds typographique, 1902), 555.
Nevertheless, it should be recognised that this concept has been identified in a number of religious traditions, including Islamic,Emil Homerin, ‘Alturism in Islam,’ in Altruism in World Religions, eds. J. Neusner & B. Chilton (Washington: Georgetown Press, 2005), 67–88.
Buddhist,Paul Williams, Altruism and Reality: Studies in the Philosophy of the Bodhicaryavatara (London: Routledge, 1998).
Judaic,Alex Sztuden, ‘The Reach of Reason,’ in The Future of Jewish Philosophy, ed. H. Tirosh-Samuelson (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 209–30.
HinduRichard Davies, ‘Altruism in Classical Hinduism,’ in Altruism in World Religions, eds. J. Neusner & B. Chilton (Washington: Georgetown Press, 2005), 159–81.
and Christian.Cyril Miron, The Problem of Altruism in the Philosophy of Saint Thomas (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1993).
Altruism is also a fundamental concept in many African religions and cultures, and thinkers from a number of contexts engage with this theme, including Kenyan,D. Masolo, ‘Rethinking Communities in a Global Context,’ in African Philosophy 12 (1999), 51–68;
South African,Mogobe Ramose, African Philosophy through Ubuntu (Harare: Monde Books, 1999), 160–205.
Nigerian,Eghosa E. Osaghae, ‘Rescuing the Post-colonial State of Africa,’ in Quest 1318 (1998), 269–82; Chukwudum Okolo, ‘Self as a Problem in African Philosophy,’ in International Philosophical Quarterly 32 (1992), 477–85.
and GhanaianKwasi Wiredu, ‘The Moral Foundations of an African Culture,’ in The African Philosophy Reader, ed. P.H. Coetzee (London: Routledge, 2001), 306–16; Kwame Gyekye, ‘Person and Community in African Thought,’ in Ghanaian Philosophical Studies 1 (1992), 196–206.
writers. Indeed a plethora of traditional stories from across the continent emphasise the ethical importance of altruistic action and depict how the spirit of altruism has guided the way of life in many cultures.
The present article combines traditional African cultural and religious narratives with comparable principles within the Christian tradition in order to explore the importance of altruistic action in the contemporary African context. While there is clearly an extensive literature on the subject of altruism, I consider that this synthesis provides a distinctive contribution to the role that altruism can play in contemporary African society.There are a number of studies being undertaken by biologists in this area. While this evolutionary dimension of altruism is beyond the scope of this essay, a number of excellent studies examining this dimension are available. For example see: David Sloan Wilson, Does Altruism Exist (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 2015).
Moreover, these reflections arise from a particular context. As a Cameroonian, from the troubled English-speaking area of the country, the theme under discussion holds particular significance given that the Anglophone region has become a theatre of ravaging violence.Violent incidents in Cameroon abound in the North West, South West, South and Central regions. In several cases, bands of youths have destroyed the property of people whom they considered were not natives or indigenous to their region. There are 256 ethnic groups in Cameroon; thus it is clearly important to struggle for a solution to these issues.
Written under the shadow of considerable socio-political upheaval, the article draws attention to the fact that any community that does not valorise human life is a fallen community.While Francophone Cameroonian thinkers have broadly addressed the theme of altruism it is has not been treated in relation to the Anglophone crisis. For further discussion, see Achille Mbembe, On the Postcolony, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2014); F. E. Boulaga, Muntu in Crisis (London: Africa World Press, 2014).
In response to these enormous challenges, it proposes a revival of the African spirit of altruism as a panacea for living together in unity and interdependence.
Altruism in African Socio-cultural and Linguistic Phenomena
For further discussion see my work: The Problematic of National Integration in Cameroon: Crisis and Perspectives (Yaounde: Presses de l’Université Protestante d’Afrique Central, 2018), 93–97.
The task of reflecting on the moral and ethical values contained within African languages, traditions and customs is enormous. Nevertheless, this undertaking is important for it is only by reintegrating these concepts into our modern existence that we will be able to successfully address the challenges that we face today.Julius Nyerere, ‘African Socialism’ in John Parratt, A Reader in African Christian Theology (London: SPCK, 1991), 117.
African legends, traditional wise sayings and proverbs convey an abundance of wisdom. They show certain traits and behaviours that are valued and appreciated and others that are frowned upon. They evoke situations of reproof of bad behaviour and counsel towards good behaviour and promote the value of unity either in the family or society in general. In his analysis of the Spirituality of African Peoples, Peter Paris highlights the fact that:
In all their relationships Africans assume a reciprocity of responsibilities and duties determined, in large part, by traditional understandings, beliefs and practices. Such responsibilities and duties were exercised within a context that bestowed primary value on activities of constituting, reconstituting, preserving and enhancing the community, which in turn constituted, reconstituted, preserved and enhanced the lives of all.Peter J. Paris, The Spirituality of African Peoples: The Search for a Common Moral Discourse (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 86.
As is indicated in this extract, many traditional African cultures are imbued with altruism as opposed to individualism (egoism). According to the Nigerian ethicist Samuel Kunhiyop, ‘One's grasp of African morality is dismal if one does not come to terms with the profound concept of community.’Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, African Christian Ethics (Nairobi: Hippo Books, 2008), 20.
In a similar vein, the South African ethicist Neville Richardson states that ‘community is the central concept in African ethics, the central experience of African morality.’Neville Richardson, ‘Can Christian Ethics Find Its Way, and Itself, in Africa?’ Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 95 (1996), 37–54, at 40.
This indicates that, in a manner comparable to Comte's notion of altruism, within a number of traditional African cultures the good of the community comes above the good of the individual.Comte writes: ‘The problem consists in subordinating as far as possible the personal to the social instincts, by referring all to Humanity. The Social State is constantly tending towards this complete inversion of the individual arrangement by the fact that it necessarily develops the weaker instincts and checks the stronger.’ Comte, 559.
Nevertheless, extrapolating an idea of community in cultures where many of the treasures remain unwritten is a complex affair.
In his classic work, Toward an African Theology, John Pobee argues for the phenomenological approach as a method for the collection of African cultural and religious data:
We as yet have no scriptures of African traditional religion. But the urgent task is the collection of myths, proverbs, invocations, prayers, incantations, ritual, songs, dreams and so on. The collections made so far are rather haphazard and are part of sociological and anthropological studies.John Pobee, Towards an African Theology (Nashville, TN.: Abingdon Press, 1979), 21.
While Pobee writes primarily from a Ghanaian perspective,John Pobee, Skenosis: Christian Faith in an African Context (Harare: Mambo Press, 1992), 75.
he considers the same principle to be applicable to other African cultures such as Cameroon. Indeed, he has said that the ‘wisdom of Cameroon will be condensed in its proverbs.’John Pobee, conversation with John Pobee, 8 December 2012.
This is especially true of my own region, Bakossi, in the South West of Cameroon. Therefore, in the remainder of this section, examples of traditional African socio-cultural and linguistic phenomena whose depth of language presupposes altruistic behaviour through the notion of unity and interdependence will be identified. These themes will then be discussed, in the next section, in relation to the Christian tradition.
My own people, the Bakossi, have their own way of expressing altruism through the principle of unity and interdependence. They use human hands as an analogy, which has developed into a proverb in which they state: ‘the right hand washes the left and the left one washes the right.’ Indeed, neither hand can wash itself. Hence, each hand must depend on the other. This manifests itself powerfully in rural settings where family ties remain strong (you can hardly find beggars in these areas). Everybody is related to somebody and is the beneficiary of the benevolence of the whole community. Old parents, widows and orphans remain the concern of even extended family members, especially where immediate family members are not available. Sadly the principles of the past are no longer revered (especially in urban areas) in quite the same way. Even the culture in villages is changing. For example, it is said that in former days, farmers would harvest ripe bunches of bananas and leave them by the side of the road for travellers to eat, enabling them to gain strength for their journey. The disappearance of this benevolent gesture has been attributed to the growing influence of the global financial system. Thus, the need to export raw materials for national financial development has undermined the local application of the principle of unity and interdependence, disrupting local communal solidarity as the focus and value of Cameroonian life. The temptation to make more money supplants all other objectives, displacing the relational aspects of life and the role of just and equitable communities as the basis and necessary context for a dignified life. Nevertheless, stories which express the principle of unity and interdependence endure. One example is the legend that narrates a father's testament to his sons on his death bed. It is said that he made his sons collect a number of sticks for him. He made them tie the sticks in a bundle and asked each of them to break it. Once they had realised that they could not, he then proceeded to give each of them a single stick and asked them to break their respective pieces. This they did with relative ease. The message was clear to the sons. Today we express it in the proverb: ‘together we stand, divided we fall.’
Proverbs play an important role across the continent, with some transcending national boundaries. We might refer to these as pan-African proverbs. Indeed, some thinkers have even argued that underlying many of these sayings is a communal principle emphasising collectivism and altruism.J. Gildenhuys, The Philosophy of Public Administration (Stellenbosch: Sun Press, 2004), 29.
For example, the Ugandan philosopher of religion, John Mbiti argues that there are a number of traditional, pan-African concepts of evil, ethics and justice. For example, he argues that there is a traditional pan-African consciousness of evil - and a resolve to fight it. Moreover, he maintains that in general, African societies conceive of social order and peace as being sacred. He writes:
There exist, therefore, many laws, customs, set forms of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos, constituting the moral code and ethics of a given community or society. Some of these are held to be sacred, and are believed to have been instituted by God or national leaders. They originate in the zamani (a Swahili word for the past) where the forebears are. This gives sanctity to the customs and regulations of the community. Any breach of this code of behaviour is considered evil, wrong or bad, for it is an injury or destruction to the accepted social order and peace.Mbiti, 200. Emphasis mine.
In this extract, Mbiti highlights what he interprets to be common principles across the continent. A paradigmatic example of this is the saying ‘if you want to go fast, go alone; if you want to go far, go together’, which is manifest in a wide variety of contexts. The same is true of the proverb ‘I am human because you are human’. For example, it finds the following formulation in Mbiti's classic work African Religions and Philosophy: ‘I am, because we are; and since we are therefore I am.’John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (Oxford: Heinemann International, 1990), 106.
This principle evokes the same sense of oneness, unity and togetherness. It stands for a common life and identity. The principle resonates with the Cameroonian illustrations indicated above: we are only strong as we are united – unity and interdependence.
Mbiti also highlights the important role played by words within the traditional landscape. For example, he highlights that concepts like zamani not only signify the past, but the authority of the past.In one sense it may be interpreted in a fashion similar to the way in which Christians (particularly traditionalists) refer to the authority of the church Fathers or the authority of the early church.
Linguistic phenomena of this kind are revelatory in that they manifest the underlying principles operative in cultures and traditions. Indeed three traditional African words, utilised extensively in the political sphere after colonialism, deserve special mention here. These words, which highlight the pan-African nature of the principle of unity and interdependence, are found in (1) Tanzania, (2) South Africa and (3) Kenya. They are Ujamaa, Ubuntu and Harambee. Each of these words has developed into an agenda for socio-political action. Ujamaa is a Swahili word that stands for family-hood or brotherhood. However, Dr Julius Nyerere, the African political philosopher and first president of Tanzania (1965–1985), developed it into a political theory. His vision was to utilise this concept in order to enhance the spirit of togetherness and sharing. In employing this political philosophy, Nyerere wished to develop a Tanzanian nation where togetherness and sharing animated national life. Essentially, he articulated a form of socialism permeated with African cultural phenomena.Speaking once to the Maryknoll Sisters in New York, USA, Nyerere presented a ‘powerful plea for the church to be actively engaged in the creation of a more just and equal society.’ The church as he put it had the obligation ‘to fight for a society which will enable every man and woman to live in dignity and well-being, and to work for the eradication of exploitation and for the sharing of wealth.’ Nyerere, 117.
Ubuntu is a similar, more famous concept.It is even the name of a computer operating system (Linux).
It is a word taken from the Zulu language, and it represents essential virtues like compassion, understanding, reciprocity, dignity, harmony, solidarity and respect – all geared towards building and maintaining the local community with justice and mutual care. Popularised during the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in post-apartheid South Africa, Ubuntu rejects vengeance and victimisation.H. Strait, ‘Ubuntu, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, and South African National Identity’ in Representation Matters: (Re)Articulating Collective Identities in a Postcolonial World (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 83–101.
Essentially Ubuntu represents an African philosophy of solidarity. It emphasises the sense and power of belonging – the sense and power of walking together. In today's South Africa, where the xenophobic spirit is on the rise, many might question what has happened to the spirit of Ubuntu.E. Chinemona, ‘Xenophobia and Human Rights: Strengthening the Spirit of “Ubuntu” Globally’ in International Journal of Research in Business Studies and Management 3 (2016), 22–32
A similar notion is found in Kenya. The word Harambee refers to the Kenyan tradition of community self-help, and in the traditional Swahili language, it literally means ‘all put together.’ Harambee was popularised by the political philosopher and first president of Kenya (1964–1978), Dr Jomo Kenyatta as an ‘African value of solidarity.’Emmanuel Katongole, 55.
Interestingly it is also the official motto of Kenya, appearing on its coat of arms. Harambee as a concept seems to be enjoying much social dynamism given that is used as a name for certain social structures in Kenya with partnership in Rwanda and South Africa.https://harambee.co.za, 5 February 2020 12.13 pm.
From the above, it seems that these words and proverbs, African socio-cultural and linguistic phenomena, are undergirded by a powerful altruistic principle. Indeed, the foregoing suggests that traditional African teachings, idioms, proverbs and customs can inform our moral discourse, providing conceptual vehicles for contextual social change. Indeed they offer a means for the development of an ethic of social responsibility in Africa. However, if we do not use them, we will be building our societies on sand.As Mbiti has observed, ‘Where the sense of corporate life is so deep, it is inevitable that the solidarity of the community must be maintained, otherwise there is disintegration and destruction.’ Mbiti, 200.
Nevertheless, African societies have the conceptual resources needed to assist them in addressing the challenges of injustice and inequality today.Ibid, 130.
The achievements of Nyerere, Mandela and other African leaders demonstrate that the integration of these principles into the apparatus of the modern state can produce positive results. However, harmoniously living together is something that will need to be constantly worked at for it is clear that contemporary African society is bedevilled with attitudes to life that celebrate egoism, greed and covetousness.
In summary, it is evident that the principle of altruism is manifest in a variety of African contexts. These lessons from Africa teach us one thing: that we need one another. Thus, if we need one another, we must create space for the other. This reference to traditional African wisdom ought to challenge African Christians and people of other religious orientations to rediscover and re-express, in religious terms, their traditional values concerning community life. However, at this juncture, it is helpful to discuss similar themes within the Christian tradition.
Re-reading Altruism in the Christian Tradition
The reception of Christian doctrine by Africans has been shaped by traditional cultural values.Kwame Bediako, Jesus in African culture (Accra: Assempa, 1990), 3; Kwame Bediako, ‘Understanding African theology in the twentieth century,’ Themelios (1994), 14–20.
For example, the importance of community – particularly the principle of unity and interdependence – renders social models of the Trinity appealing to Cameroonians like myself. However, it is important to acknowledge that there have been a number of critical studies on social Trinitarianism. For example, Paul Fletcher contends that:
Proponents of the social model of the Trinity present us with a facile and banal version of political theology, a version that has little political import and a modest theological significance.For further discussion see: Paul Fletcher, Disciplining the Divine: Towards an (Im)political Theology (Farnam: Ashgate, 2009), 140.
While this critique is important, for it highlights the way in which cultural suppositions can influence our conception of doctrine, Fletcher's discussion of the way in which conceptions outlined by Western theologians have unwittingly sanctioned ‘liberal-capitalist hegemony’ is limited. Thus, while it is obviously true that the reception of Christian doctrine will be influenced by these cultural values in the West, it is also clear that one's reception of the idea of social Trinitarianism can also be shaped by non-western understandings.For further discussion see: James Henry Owino Kombo, The Doctrine of God in African Christian Thought: The Holy Trinity (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 122.
According to Kombo:
The West interprets the doctrine of God in ways that only the West can do ... Western patterns of thought … can make it difficult for peoples outside of the Western culture to fully grasp the interpretations, but it also challenges those cultures to make use of their own patterns to articulate their theology.Kombo, 137.
In this regard, it is possible that some of the difficulties with this model of the Trinity can be mitigated by African conceptions of community and interdependence.
As a Cameroonian and a Christian, I interpret the doctrine of the Holy Trinity as an idea about a Divine communion. I refer to God as Holy Trinity: one God in three persons and speak about God as Father, Son and Holy Spirit.Kombo, 132.
The number three is characteristic of community or living together and the number one is characteristic of unity or oneness or belonging together. These three persons belong together and cooperate with one another and are responsible for the Christian Church. As a Cameroonian, I receive this idea of God in a particular way, and as a result, I understand that Christians must likewise value unity and peaceful coexistence.
Is it possible to adopt a social interpretation of this vision of God that avoids the pitfalls identified by Fletcher and helps develop community life? Attempts to reformulate the meaning of the doctrine of the Trinity have produced what might be referred to as a social analogy, which dovetails with our present discussion. What then does it mean to declare that God is Triune? It indicates that the ‘eternal life of God is personal life in relationship,’ indicating that ‘God exists in community.’ Therefore, ‘To confess that God is triune is to affirm that the life of God is essentially self-giving love.’Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1991), 67.
These affirmations, or what Migliore calls depth grammar – relationship, community and self-giving love – effectively apply to any understanding of the depth meaning of altruism as advocacy for community, mutuality and shared life. The confessions point towards koinonia. A quote from Leonardo Boff lends credence to Migliore's social analogy: ‘the Trinity understood in terms of a communion of persons lays down the foundation for a society of brothers and sisters, of equals, in which dialogue and consensus are the basic constituents of living together in both the world and the church.’Leonardo Boff, Trinity and Society (Maryknoll, NY.: Orbis, 1988), 118–20.
As I interpret it, this understanding of the Trinity questions every attitude which is prone to exclusion. It also questions ‘modern theories that equate personal existence with absolute autonomy and isolated self-consciousness.’Migliore, 68.
The Trinity thus gives room for otherness. On this reading, any fear of the other, therefore, betrays the depth meaning of the Trinity.Miroslav Volf, Exclusion & Embrace: A Theological Exploration of Identity (Nashville, TN.: Abingdon 1996), 7
The church is called to reflect the nature of God, and this is revealed in the scriptures, particularly in the book of Acts, where we read that the church began with a strong principle of community:
All who believed were together and had all things in common; they would sell their possessions and goods and distribute the proceeds to all as any had need. Day by day as they spent much time together in the temple, they broke bread at home and ate their food with glad and generous hearts, praising God and having the goodwill of all the people. And day by day the Lord added to their number those who were being saved
(Acts 2:44–47).
A second similar passage reads as follows:
Now the whole group of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one claimed private ownership of any possessions, but everything they owned was held in common…. There was not a needy person among them for as many as owned lands or houses sold them and brought the proceeds of what was sold. They laid it at the apostles’ feet and it was distributed to each as any had need. There was a Levite, a native of Cyprus, Joseph, to whom the apostles gave the name Barnabas (which means “son of encouragement”). He sold a field he that belonged to him, then brought the money and laid it at the apostles’ feet
(Acts. 4:32–36).
The word together appears twice in the first passage and we read that people sacrificed their possessions for the good of others and that the community grew because it lived together harmoniously. This resonates with the traditional saying: ‘We are Together.’ This is a phrase that communities, including Christians, often use in the face of difficulty or hardship in Cameroon. It reflects the community we find in Acts, which can be interpreted as an image of the nature of God. Indeed, commentators like Nyerere have interpreted this as a Christian form of socialism.Aloo Osotsi Mojola, ‘The Swahili Bible in East Africa from 1844 to 1996: A brief survey with special reference to Tanzania,’ in The Bible in Africa: transactions, trajectories, and trends, ed. G. West (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 511–23.
Whether they are right or not, one thing seems apparent: the early Christians had a strong sense of living together and sacrificing for the welfare of the community rather than the individual. This attitude receives further instruction in the biblical verse that says that ‘Do not seek your own advantage, but that of the other’ (1 Cor 10:24).Other relevant passages can include the following: Lk 6:31; Rom 15:2; Phil 2:4.
Beside these stories, there are other references in the New Testament where antisocial behaviours are proscribed – like anger, rage, malice, slander, lies, hatred, discord, jealousy and envy (Eph 5:19–21, Col 3:5–9). Such egoistical behaviours antagonise or contradict altruistic behaviour. The Acts of the Apostles also offers an illustration of a couple, Ananias and Sapphira, whose egoism undermined the principle of community life. They, like Joseph, sold their property but decided to keep part of the proceeds for themselves and brought the other part to the church. When it is was discovered that they had been selfish in their attitude, they died instantly (Acts 5:1–10). As a Cameroonian, my reception of this story focusses upon how a disinclination to altruism – a half-hearted response towards responsibility – is an example of egoism which over time results in the destruction of community life.
I am not alone in taking this interpretation.Philip Gibbs, The Word in the Third World: Divine Revelation in the Theology of Jean-Marc Ela, Aloysius Pieris, Gustavo Gutiérrez (Rome: Gregorian, 1996), 89.
The reception of passages like these, by theologians from outside the West, has led to theologies which place considerable emphasis on social responsibility. For example, outside the African context, South American liberation theologians have long emphasised these themes in their reception of the principle doctrines of Christianity. They highlight particularly the need for the church to stand against socio-political injustice, oppression and marginalisation, by presenting Jesus Christ as one who had a ‘preferential option for the poor.’Gustavo Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation (London: SCM Press, 1988), xxv.
African writers, including the Cameroonian theologian Jean Marc Ela, have also emphasised these themes.J. Ela, ‘Christianity and liberation in Africa’, in Paths of African Theology, ed. R. Gibellini (London: SCM, 1994), 136–50.
These thinkers stress that the Christian Church, in order to be Christian, must struggle against the structures of death that inhibit the plenitude of human life, for which altruism supposedly stands. Under the leadership of a South American, Pope Francis, the Catholic Church's ‘Social Doctrine’ (a compendium intended to instruct Christians on matters of social responsibility and nation building) has been given a renewed emphasis. Teaching on topics such as human dignity, the common good, justice, solidarity and subsidiarity illustrate five great principles of Christian social ethics. Together, they demonstrate the value of the human person and the need for equal opportunities and mutual respect.
Western readings of the Bible may produce different emphases. Nevertheless, in areas of considerable inequality and poverty, there is a tendency to highlight the importance of passages that stress the church's social responsibility.De La Torre, M.A., ed., Introducing Liberative Theologies (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2015).
Thus, within African traditional cultures and within certain strands within the Christian religion, there is a strong accent on altruism. Thus, while it is true that Western conceptions of theology, including social Trinitarianism, have their own conceptual baggage, it is clear that the analogy of relationship, community and self-giving love offers a vision of God which, combined with traditional African cultural insights, can help us to navigate the challenges we face across the continent. Unfortunately, these themes expose the serious problem of egoism in modern African communities.
The African Spirit of Altruism and Christian Benevolence
Can African Christians combine both Christian and traditional African perspectives in order to realise a more harmonious community life in contemporary Africa? Examples from the past indicate this is possible. For example, Nyerere's vision of Christian Socialism in Tanzania may be interpreted as an attempt to reimagine traditional African and Christian values within the modern state. Indeed, as indicated earlier, Nyerere's definition of socialism in Swahili was Ujamaa or brotherhood. This is an example of how he utilised a traditional African concept of communal living to inform his vision of Christian socialism. He considered that the capitalist ‘goal of individual wealth’ was misguided and critiqued the notion that this was the only viable form of development.Julius Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism/Uhuru na Ujamaa (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968), 341.
On the contrary, he declared that ‘We shall be a nation of equals’ and stated that a socialist society would ultimately be judged by whether or not its fundamental characteristics manifest a real ‘equality, co-operation and freedom.’Nyerere, Freedom and Socialism, 23.
Thus, he did not focus first on institutional change but on reminding the Tanzanian people of their historic values. Therefore, in contrast to the Russian revolution, which forced individuals to surrender their wealth, Nyerere followed the paradigm of Acts 2 and emphasised that this resonated with the altruism found in traditional African societies. This memory, he believed, would naturally compel people to share.Cranford Pratt, ‘Nyerere on the Transition to Socialism in Tanzania,’ in African Studies (1975), 65–66.
In fact, Nyerere formulated the problem of egoism as follows: the real difficulty is not actually one of living together but one of eating together. We live together but refuse to eat together. In effect, unless we start eating together and sharing what we have with others, living together will remain problematic. He writes:
Poverty is not the real problem of the world. For we have the knowledge and resources which could enable us to overcome poverty. The real problem – the thing which creates misery, wars, and hatred among men – is the division of mankind into rich and poor.Julius Nyerere, ‘African Socialism’ in John Parratt, A Reader in African Christian Theology (London: SPCK, 1991), 117
In sum, the real problem is one of sharing or the equitable distribution of wealth. However, by combining traditional African values with his Christian faith, Nyerere was able to offer an alternative vision for society in which altruism rather than egoism was the focus. He wrote:
I think the chances are that all leaders will surrender their personal possessions ... The atmosphere in Tanzania is extremely difficult (for them to do otherwise). It is almost untenable for a leader to prefer personal possessions to leadership.Nyerere, cited in Pratt, 66.
Can a fresh social vison for Africa, one that is people-centred and that resists forms of politics that undermine community life, be internally restored?Katongole, 4.
The question is important because egoism is a serious problem in modern Africa. Indeed, since Nyerere's time, there has been ‘a dramatic change’ away from traditional values. For example, it seems that ‘instead of turning to our Creator in order to receive guidance on how to live, man has turned in to material things, turning his back on his Creator.’Su, 100.
How then can we reimagine the contemporary experience of living together, how can we realise the creation of a different story for Africa – a story that inculcates self-sacrificing love and that values human dignity?
Nyerere's writings offer us signposts, but at the heart of the problem is the need for a revival of African values today:Katongole, x.
a transition away from egoism to altruism. The Ugandan theologian, Emmanuel Katongole, explains this move as follows:
Moving from hatred to love requires more than a simple decision. It requires a total reversal ‘at the very core of oneself,’ which is only made possible by the gift of forgiveness. This gift of forgiveness allows one to rediscover one's true identity and one's true calling, which is love.Ibid, 181
Aaron Su, former general secretary of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon, makes a similar point when distinguishing between the past and the present. He writes,
Rulers of the original Africa had the interest of the Creator, and those of their communities at heart. Through good lawful and orderly government based on production and trade, people lived happy, peaceful and prosperous lives because the wealth of the kingdom or empire was evenly spread for the benefit of most citizens. Justice was the hall-mark of most governments.Aaron Su, Nationalism and Nation Building in Africa (Basel: Basileia-Publications, 1992), 100.
Su goes on to contrast this image with the situation in modern Cameroon, where many citizens live in abject poverty. This, he considers, points to the degeneration of social responsibility in modern Africa.
If African Christians can recall their own history – both the traditional wisdom narratives and the Christian heritage that they have embraced – they will find a new grammar of being, a harmonious way of living together.For further discussion see Hans Frei, The Eclipse of the Biblical Narrative (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 1974).
African Christians can offer a rich example of altruism that far outweighs Comte's assessment. Altruism is not self-sacrificing but self-fulfilling. It makes us truly human. The Christian and African stories of community and solidarity have the potential to transform the contemporary world at all levels of social, economic and political life. Sadly, another narrative of tribalism, ethnic violence, murder and corruption belies our great heritage. What kind of governance do we find in Africa? Is it one that values truth, honesty, justice, peace, spiritual and moral uprightness, patriotism and care for the interest of others through the protection of their life and property? Or is it one of dishonesty, fraud, falsehood, oppression, and spiritual and moral decadence?Flavius Vegetius Renatus, ‘Epitoma Rei Militaris’ in http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/vegetius3.html [27.6.2020].
Answers to this question will differ but contexts where egoism is supreme will destroy community life.
Recent experiences in Cameroon, even among school children, indicate a very worrying trajectory. The socio-political crisis in the North West and South West regions and the war against Boko Haram insurgents in the Northern region have all brought about the destruction of human life. Other African countries have their own stories to tell. Nevertheless, it is clear that external factors are not solely to blame for the problems faced. All this calls for honest and humble self-examination, self-criticism and self-discipline on the part of both the governing authorities and the governed. Africans must seek to affirm the worth of persons and reorder their priorities to attain this goal. Nevertheless, while the responsibility for good governance lies with Africans, it is also important to emphasise that unjust international financial systems will undermine our vision of life together.
At this juncture two relevant questions need to be asked. Is it really possible to create a system that will fairly redistribute wealth?Ibid, 7.
And, can we have a financial world order in which people, rather than profit, are the focus?Katongole, 5
In addressing these challenges we might return to traditional African values of altruism – what African political philosophers like Nyerere have called a people-centred and people-driven economy.Nyerere, cited in Parratt, 118.
Nevertheless, there is clearly a need to translate these values into the contemporary situation – a globalised world where countries are increasingly interconnected. The need to consider altruism at a national level – as individuals living together in a society – is important. However, even more important is the need to consider it at an international level. Indeed, it has been argued that Nyerere's African socialist vision failed because of external factors.The Oil crisis of 1973, the war with Idi Amin and indeed the Cold War context. For further discussions see: Godfrey Mwakikagile, Tanzania under Mwalimu Nyerere (Dar es Salaam: New Africa Press, 2006), 63.
Transformation at the international level will have far more impact on human welfare and development. In this regard the World Council of Churches’ critique of the global financial system – particularly institutions like the IMF and the World Bank – illustrates how a macro-level change might be realised:
There is need to unmask and demystify the approaches, policies and language, both professional and spiritual, used by the financial institutions in the process of implementing their economic agendas…. Ensuring the implementation of policies that support life with dignity in just and sustainable communities must be central in the evaluation of new social and institutional arrangements at all levels of decision making.Emmanuel Katongole, in World Council of Churches, Lead Us not into Temptation: Churches’ Response to the Policies of International Financial Institutions, A Background Document (Geneva: World Council of Churches Justice, Peace and Creation, 2001), 3–4. For further discussion see: Emmanuel Katongole, The Journey of Reconciliation: Groaning for a New Creation in Africa (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2017).
If lasting change is to be realised then economic policies that justify massive exclusion and the sacrifice of human lives in the name of economic growth need to be revisited – such policies disempower others and de-valorise or vitiate their humanity. Thus, there is a need for Christians to continue to push for altruism at an international level – especially in institutions where there is great disparity in social ranking, financial power and economic development. It is important particularly to oppose policies of economic and political injustice. In a world where the prosperity of one is not the prosperity of another there will necessarily be inequality; this is a setting for exclusion rather than embrace. Egoism is the real enemy: placing the needs of the individual above the needs of the community is the root of socio-political and economic problems. Egoism is a social vice that does not value the other person. It does not think that the other person matters. It does not seek the good of the other person. When it pretends to care, it does so only to reap manifold benefits.
The role played by the world church in this regard should not be underestimated. If we are really the people of God, our actions should reflect the loving communion we find within the Godhead. Through organisations like the World Council of Churches, Christians can take a lead, offering a vision for better governance and advocacy for political reforms in order to realise quality and justice. Unfortunately, the experience is often quite different. We are at once engaged in presenting an idyllic vision of how things might be and yet we are bedevilled with divisions, both within and without. Indeed, many church leaders have been co-opted by the established powers and have submitted to patterns that are inconsistent with the way of Christ.
Conclusion
How we can live together and value one another? The traditional African religio-cultural heritage has much to offer, including legacies of community and of sharing and working together that span millennia. If at this time we could reimagine our past and cultivate the same self-sacrificing love that values the dignity of others, then discrimination, intolerance, nepotism and exclusion would diminish. While in this article we have made reference to altruism, the broader vision is one that seeks to recover how we could live in a world that has been torn apart by egoism and violence. Can we recover our identity? Can we offer our heritage, our African socialism, as a gift to the contemporary world? This article is a cry for an African Christian response. Its purpose is to stimulate debate and illustrate how Christian stories and traditional African wisdom might transform our world, and prompt a fresh critical review of the economic, political, cultural and social questions that vitiate or de-valorise our life. In conclusion, this article is an encouragement towards the development of an altruistic mindset and a call for a renewed vision of our public life; it is based on the conviction that when we pay attention to others, the world will be a better place.
