Were hospitallers some of the earliest tour operators?

Although the discipline of history contributes to a better and deeper understanding of past and contemporary issues (Kostiainen, 2014), many tourism studies have a present-time-centred approach and need to be more consistent with historical facts (Walton, 2005). This can lead to a limited understanding of tourism (Towner, 1995), particularly regarding its origins and early periods. Studies on travel and touring throughout history should be evaluated in the context of each period's unique nature and characteristics (Gyr, 2010). An example of a modern-centred belief that is generally accepted is that Thomas Cook was the first person to offer tours, and his company was the first tour operator organisation (Cormack, 1982; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2022b; Polat & Arslan, 2019) but it is clear that tourism has a far longer history than is commonly known and that Cook was far from being the first tour operator (Ahmed, 2015; Cicero, 1960; Friedländer, 1965; García Romero, 2013; Gyr, 2012; Hunt, 1982; Madden, 2007; Theilmann, 1987; Towner & Wall, 1991; Walton, 2021). Part of the reason for the misconception about Cook is that there is no in-depth study that analyses the functions of a tour operator, or that investigates the early existence of such an organisation that would contradict this incorrect belief.

Tourism's basic patterns and characteristics have mostly stayed the same for 2000 years despite many innovations and developments (Butler, 2015). For instance, pilgrimage is a type of tourism (Turner & Turner, 1978; Digance, 2003) that was often conducted in dangerous settings with limited individual support in the Medieval Ages (Sigal et al., 2005). It has been argued that medieval pilgrims were travellers who engaged in an early form of mass tourism (Digance, 2003) and had a range of specific needs, as do today's tourists. The Hospitallers' activities are related primarily to pilgrims and have been shown to involve activities such as providing protection, transport, and healing (Beveridge & O'Gorman, 2012). However, a detailed examination of whether Hospitallers functioned as a medieval tour operator organisation remains a gap in the literature.

Every organisation has specific functions (Spencer, 1898), and using the functionalist approach, the functions of any organisation can be revealed (Bredemeier, 1955). By comparing the functions of Hospitallers and tour operators, it is possible to ascertain if they represent the same organisation (as a social structure), despite their names perhaps suggesting otherwise. Just as every sociological phenomenon has a historical side, every historical phenomenon has a sociological side (Mills, 1959). Functionalism, as a sociological perspective (Mooney et al., 2022), is a suitable approach for understanding phenomena operating within a system (Bredemeier, 1955). The use of functionalism for analysing a structure can be summarised as explaining how A maintains B through C, which represents a function (Bredemeier, 1955; Lazarsfeld & Kendall, 1950, 1974). Tourism is also a system that has various norms (Leiper, 1979), and the role of tour operators in this system is distinct and significant (Gartner & Bachri, 1994; Holloway, 1992). Tour operators offer a range of services, including transportation, accommodation, food services, and other miscellaneous services, such as organising attendance at events and attractions (Bryant, 2022; Goeldner & Ritchie, 2009; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001). The main contributions of tour operators in the current tourism system are maintaining and enabling the flow of tourists (Baldarelli, 2000; Gartner & Bachri, 1994).

Numerous historical facts and records concerning the operation of the Hospitallers do exist, but have been little studied in tourism (Riley-Smith, 2010). Using the lens of the functionalist approach to examine this literature on Hospitallers and selecting certain information as per the functionalist protocol represents a typical example of a systematic literature analysis (Peričić & Tanveer, 2019). Inclusion criteria were formed in line with the functional explanation of a structure (Bredemeier, 1955; Lazarsfeld & Kendall, 1950, 1974). This study's innovative contributions include not only filling a gap in the analysis of medieval tour operations but also highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to tourism history by offering a way to reveal tourism structures in the medieval period, thereby enhancing our understanding of the medieval tourism system.

This study aims to clarify the situation in that specific case by comparing the recorded actions of the Hospitallers with the accepted functions of travel agents, using a systematic literature review. For this purpose, to search for keywords, the following databases were consulted: ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Science, SAGE Publications, EBSCOHost (Hospitality & Tourism Complete), Emerald, and ProQuest. The main reason for selecting these databases is the convenience of accessing the sources through the university library database. The terms selected were “Hospitallers,” “tour operator,” and “functionalism” as primary keywords. Because these terms are independent, they were searched separately. The search was conducted between June 2022 and June 2023 by all three researchers.

The structure of this research follows the principles of a systematic literature review, utilising a specific protocol for evidence data subject to new interpretation (Peričić & Tanveer, 2019). A systematic literature review is a method that seeks to gather evidence to clarify a specific question (Mengist et al., 2020; Torgerson, 2003). This methodological approach is the main difference between a systematic and narrative literature review (Rother, 2007). The process in a systematic literature review can be summarised as formulating the problem, searching the literature, screening for inclusion, assessing quality, extracting data, and analysing and synthesising data (Templier & Paré, 2015). The stages of research should be clearly defined, the state of compliance of the information with the criteria should be explicitly stated, and care should be taken to ensure minimal bias (Patole, 2021). The consensus of researchers can be utilized as a measurement by which to reach minimum bias (Noordzij et al., 2009).

Systematic literature reviews can be divided into two types (Xiao & Watson, 2017). The first type can be utilized for establishing a theoretical context for an empirical study (Templier & Paré, 2015). The second type can be used to reconsider existing accepted knowledge, interpret it, question it, and evaluate it (Rosseau et al., 2008). A systematic literature review can also reveal that what is generally accepted may be untrue (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006).

In this regard, this study can be counted as the second type of systematic literature review. In other words, since the main starting point for tour operators is the Grand Tour of Thomas Cook, this study was conducted to determine whether we can reconsider this knowledge within the context of the Hospitaller tradition before Thomas Cook. Thus, the research question of this study is whether Hospitallers during the first period of their history (between 1080 and 1291) operated as a tour operator from the perspective of the functionalist approach. To understand the answer, literature dealing with three issues, i)

functionalism,

A typical functionalist approach, which focuses on the operational processes of a structure and the operational processes it maintains (Bredemeier, 1955), has been used to understand functions. In this way, the functions of tour operators have been identified and are shown in Table 1. Following this, the inclusion criteria of Hospitallers (Table 2) were reviewed using the functionalist approach of tour operators. Then, the literature about Hospitallers was reviewed in the light of the inclusion criteria and other inclusions illustrated in the tables (See Table 2). To minimise bias during inclusion, the consensus of researchers was sought, and every function was peer-reviewed and achieved consensus concerning the accuracy of the information recorded as per the advice of Noordzij et al. (2009).

Based on the information in Table 1, the function of a tour operator includes at least two of the following services: transportation, accommodation, entertainment, providing food, and ensuring safety and health (operational process) for maintaining flows of tourists from tourist-generating locations to a destination.

The function of a tour operator, as described above, can then be used to compare whether any other structure has the same function. The first column in Table 2 illustrates relevant information about Hospitallers selected from the literature. For achieving comprehension, the second column has been formed from inclusion criteria, which are the same as those of the function of tour operators. Minimising the bias about the accuracy of relevant information and whether the authors discussed the information fitted with the functions of tour operators. Only information on which they reached a consensus with respect to accuracy is included (as per the advice of Noordzij et al., 2009). In the extraction part (3^rd column) of Table 2, remarks on information and extractions have been included.

Above, two different tables are shown. Table 1 presents the research on tour operators and their functions published between 1992 and 2022. On the other hand, Table 2 presents the research track on the functions of Hospitallers compared to those of tour operators, published between 2013 and 2022. In both tables, there are four columns. In the first column, the reference sources are located. Then, in the second and third columns, the inclusion criteria 1 and 2. While the inclusion criteria 1 represent the functions of tour operators, the inclusion criteria 2 represent the sustainability of operations. And finally, in the fourth column, there is the extraction and remark part.

According to Table 2, Hospitallers played a multifaceted role during the medieval period, meeting the extensive needs of pilgrims. They ensured that passengers had safe passage and access to essential services, including healthcare and accommodation. This holistic approach to service delivery closely resembles the operations of contemporary tour operators, who also facilitate travel logistics, ensure guest safety, provide accommodations, and offer guided experiences. These activities highlight a continuity in critical aspects of travel facilitation from medieval times to the present. This comparison highlights the enduring nature of travel and accommodation services, revealing the historical origins of modern tourism practices. By examining the roles of the Hospitallers, we gain insight into the evolution of tourism and the persistent human need for organised travel services. This historical perspective enriches our understanding of how past practices have shaped contemporary tourism, highlighting the long-standing tradition of facilitating travel for cultural, religious, and recreational purposes.

Historical records and research about the Hospitallers reveal clearly that their functions included providing transportation, accommodation, food, assistance in safety and health, and other miscellaneous services such as arranging events and entertainment (operational processes), and that they conducted those activities to meet the needs of pilgrims travelling between their origins and destinations.

As a result, even if the prevailing understanding now acknowledges that the portrayal of the Hospitallers primarily as a military institution was a misconception, it is occasionally conflated with other groups like the Knights Templar. Similar to any organisation, the Hospitallers served distinct functions. Upon evaluating their roles, it becomes evident that during their initial operational phase (from 1080 to 1291), the Hospitallers functioned significantly as tour operators in the Medieval Age. Beyond their traditional roles in providing care and shelter to pilgrims and travellers, they facilitated and organised journeys, ensuring safe passage and accommodation across distant lands. This broader perspective reveals the Hospitallers' integral role not just in military affairs but also in the logistical and hospitality aspects of medieval travel and pilgrimage.

According to Table 1, tour operators' functions include at least two services: transportation, accommodation, entertainment, food provision, and ensuring safety (operational process) to maintain tourist flows between destinations. These functions were taken from the literature cited in this study, as stated by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2001), Bryant (2022), and Goeldner and Ritchie (2009). According to these studies, while some definitions directly include the functions in question, others do not, and in some cases, the functions are not clearly stated; they are interpretable. Regarding sustainability, it has been determined that a very minority of studies include efforts to maintain tourist flow. When it comes to making extractions from issues where definitions are incomplete, the most important issue seems to be that tour operators bring the supply and demand sides together. Additionally, functions not directly included in the definitions are the main extractions.

Accepting that pilgrimage was a form of tourism, medieval pilgrims were an early form of tourists (Digance, 2003). The information in Table 2 undisputedly shows that the functions of modern tour operators and those of Hospitallers are the same. Besides, the sustaining operation of the flow of tourists is the flow of pilgrims, as shown in Table 2.

According to Herakleitos (Robinson, 1987), every phenomenon tends to change over time, and that process follows a path that can be traced. The only way to learn how and why a phenomenon changes over time is to understand the factors that induced a change in the past. This issue must be directly addressed in the context of tourism history, where a historical approach has been lacking (Walton, 2005). A result of that can lead to conclusions that some of the social structures of tourism, such as tour operators, are products of the modern (i.e., post-Industrial Revolution) world, when in fact they were first established much earlier.

While early documents (Papal Bull in 1113 and William of Tyre) mentioned the accommodation, protection, and caring of pilgrims, the first document that records the earliest transportation activities of Hospitallers is dated to 1156 (Jacoby, 2007). Therefore, in terms of functionalism, pilgrims' accommodation, health, and protection needs preceded transportation services in the early years of the Hospitallers. The organisation and operations of the Hospitallers evolved dynamically over time. Their activities expanded in response to the changing needs and growing numbers of pilgrims, reflecting a broader scope of services. This developmental trajectory illustrates how the Hospitallers adapted and expanded their operations to meet the evolving demands of pilgrims, demonstrating a multifaceted approach to hospitality and logistical support during the medieval period.

The evolution of tourism as a system has been significantly influenced by its environment and historical context. While Pilgrimage was an early primary form of tourism during the Middle Ages, pilgrimage is of relatively less significance in modern tourism (although still important in terms of numbers involved). This may be because, unlike now, in the Medieval Age, religion and its institutions were the major instruments that shaped daily life, values, and motivations of ordinary people (Ershov et al., 2019). Travel and tourism in the present era encompass far more motivations and purposes than in the Middle Ages. Yet, the basic activities and roles of tour operators have remained remarkably similar over several hundred years, even if their procedures and methods have undergone significant changes.

As a result of this study, in the light of all these historical records, the Hospitallers, a medieval military and religious order, performed several key operational processes and functions akin to those of modern tour operators, primarily aimed at maintaining the flow of pilgrims. To provide this, they had several functions such as offering accommodation and health services, similar to the services provided by tour operators for accommodation services; offering miscellaneous services, fulfilling various needs of pilgrims, akin to modern tour operators for health and miscellaneous services; facilitating transportation for pilgrims, which was conducted on an industrial level and officially approved by the Pope for the transportation services. They were an official institution, blessed by the Pope, with internal supply mechanisms managed by their members, and their activities extended beyond the Holy Land to Asia and Europe, demonstrating a wide operational geography. Their primary purpose was to maintain the flow of pilgrims, fulfilling their needs and ensuring safe and efficient pilgrimages. The Papal Bull granted them legitimacy and recognised their role in maintaining the pilgrimage routes.