Acceso abierto

Biomarkers Derived from Nicotine and its Metabolites: A Review

   | 30 dic 2014

Cite

1. Jarvis, M.J., H. Tunstall-Pedoe, C. Feyerabend, C. Vesey, and Y. Saloojee: Comparison of tests used to distinguish smokers from nonsmokers; Am. J. Public Health 77 (1987) 1435-1438. Search in Google Scholar

2. Patrick, D.L., A. Cheadle, D.C. Thompson, P. Diehr, T. Koepsell, and S. Kinne: The validity of self-reported smoking: a review and meta-analysis; Am. J. Resp. Crit. Care Med. 84 (1994) 1086-1093. Search in Google Scholar

3. Boyd, N.R., R.A. Windsor, L.L. Perkins, and J.B. Lowe: Quality of measurement of smoking status by self-report and saliva cotinine among pregnant women; Matern. Child Health J. 2 (1998) 77-83. Search in Google Scholar

4. Lindqvist, R., L. Lendahls, Ö. Tollbom, H. Åberg, and A. Håkansson: Smoking during pregnancy: comparison of self-reports and cotinine levels in 496 women; Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 81 (2002) 240-244. Search in Google Scholar

5. Lee, P.N. and B.A. Forey: Misclassification of smoking habits as determined by cotinine or by repeated self-report - a summary of evidence from 42 studies; J. Smoking-Related Dis. 6 (1995) 109-129. Search in Google Scholar

6. Scherer, G. and E. Richter: Biomonitoring exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS): a critical reappraisal; Human Exp. Toxicol. 16 (1997) 449-459. Search in Google Scholar

7. Haley, N.J., CM. Axelrod, and K.A. Tilton: Validation of self-reported smoking behavior: biochemical analysis of cotinine and thiocyanate; Am. J. Public Health 73 (1983) 1204-1207. Search in Google Scholar

8. Van Vunakis, H., D.P. Tashkin, B. Rigas, M. Simmons, H.B Gjika, and V.A. Clark: Relative sensitivity and specificity of salivary and serum cotinine in identifying tobacco-smoking status of self-reported nonsmokers and smokers of tobacco and/or marijuana; Arch. Environ. Health 44 (1989) 53-58. Search in Google Scholar

9. Tunstall-Pedoe, H., M. Woodward, and C.A. Brown: Tea drinking, passive smoking, smoking deception and serum cotinine in the Scottish Heart Health Study; J. Clin. Epidemiol. 44 (1991) 1411–1414. Search in Google Scholar

10. Murray, R.P., J.E. Connett, J.A. Istvan, M.A. Nides, and S. Rempel-Rossum: Relations of cotinine and carbon monoxide to self-reported smoking in a cohort of smokers and ex-smokers followed over 5 years; Nicotine Tob. Res. 4 (2002) 287–294. Search in Google Scholar

11. Scherer, G.: Smoking behaviour and compensation: a review of the literature; Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 145 (1999) 1–20. Search in Google Scholar

12. Haley, N.J., S.G. Colosimo, C.M. Axelrad, R. Harris, and D.W. Sepkovic: Biochemical validation of self-reported exposure to environmental tobacco smoke; Environ. Res. 49 (1989) 127–135. Search in Google Scholar

13. Benowitz, N.L.: Cotinine as a biomarker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure; Epidemiol. Rev. 18 (1996) 188–204. Search in Google Scholar

14. DeLorenze, G.N., M. Kharrazi, F.L. Kaufman, B. Eskenazim, and J.F. Bernert: Exposure to environ-mental tobacco smoke in pregnant women: The association between self-report and serum cotinine; Environ. Res. 90 (2002) 21–32. Search in Google Scholar

15. Jarvis, M.J.: Trends in sales weighted tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide yields of UK cigarettes; Thorax 56 (2001) 960–963. Search in Google Scholar

16. Wortley, P.M., R.S. Carabello, L.L. Pederson, and T.F. Pechacek: Exposure to secondhand smoke in the workplace: Serum cotinine by occupation; J. Occup. Environ. Med. 44 (2002) 503–509. Search in Google Scholar

17. Seccareccia, F., P. Zuccaro, R. Pacifici, P. Meli, F. Pannozzo, K.M. Freeman, A. Santaquilani, S. Giam-paoli: Serum cotinine as a marker of environmental tobacco smoke exposure in epidemiological studies: The experience of the MATISS project; Eur. J. Epide-miol. 18 (2003) 487–492. Search in Google Scholar

18. Palmer, K.J., M.M. Buckley, and D. Faulds: Transdermal nicotine: A review of its pharmacodyna-mic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy as an aid to smoking cessation. Drugs 44 (1992) 498–529. Search in Google Scholar

19. Sutherland, G., M.A.H. Russell, J. Stapleton, C. Feyer-abend, and O. Ferno: Nasal nicotine spray: A rapid nicotine delivery system; Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 108 (1992) 512–518. Search in Google Scholar

20. Guthrie, S.K., J.-K. Zubieta, L. Ohl, L. Ni, R.A. Koeppe, S. Minoshima, and E.F. Domino: Arterial/venous plasma nicotine concentrations following nicotine nasal spray; Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 55 (1999) 639–643. Search in Google Scholar

21. Ji, A.J. Jr., G.M. Lawson, R. Anderson, L.C. Dale, I.T. Croghan, and R.D. Hurt: A new gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for simultaneous deter-mination of total and free trans-3’-hydroxycotinine and cotinine in the urine of subjects receiving transdermal nicotine; Clin. Chem. 45 (1999) 85–91. Search in Google Scholar

22. Hurt, R.D., G.A. Croghan, S.D. Beede, T.D. Wolter, I.T. Crogan, and C.A. Patten: Nicotine patch therapy in 101 adolescent smokers; Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 154 (2000) 31–37. Search in Google Scholar

23. Schneider, N.G., R.E. Olmstead, M.A. Franzon, and E. Lunell: The nicotine inhaler. Clinical pharmacokinetics and comparison with other nicotine treatments; Clin. Pharmacokinet. 40 (2001) 661–684. Search in Google Scholar

24. Miwa, K., Y. Miyagi, H. Asanoi, M. Fujita, and S. Sasayama: Augmentation of smoking cessation education by urinary cotinine measurements; Jpn. Circ. J. 57 (1993) 775–780. Search in Google Scholar

25. Trudeau, D.L., C. Isenhard, and D. Silversmith: Efficacy of smoking cessation strategies in a treatment program; J. Addict. Dis. 14 (1995) 109–116. Search in Google Scholar

26. Secker-Walker, R.H., P.M. Vacek, B.S. Flynn, and P.B. Mead: Exhaled carbon monoxide and urinary cotinine as measures of smoking in pregnancy; Addict. Behav. 22 (1997) 671–684. Search in Google Scholar

27. Davis, R.A., M.F. Stiles, J.D. deBethizy, and J.H. Reynolds: Dietary nicotine: a source of urinary cotinine; Food Chem. Toxicol. 29 (1991) 821–827. Search in Google Scholar

28. Siegmund, B., E. Leitner, and W. Pfannhauser: Determination of nicotine content of various edible nightshades (Solanaceae) and their products and estimation of the associated dietary nicotine intake; J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (1999) 3113–3120. Search in Google Scholar

29. Armstrong, D.W., X. Wang and N. Ercal: Enantiometric composition of nicotine in smokeless tobacco, medicinal products and commercial reagents; Chirality 10 (1998) 587–591. Search in Google Scholar

30. Pool, W.F., C.S. Godin, and P.A. Crooks: Nicotine racemization during tobacco smoking; The Toxicologist 5 (1985) 232. Search in Google Scholar

31. Armitage, A.K. and D.M. Turner: Absorption of nicotine in cigarette and cigar smoke through the oral mucosa; Nature 226 (1970) 1231–1232. Search in Google Scholar

32. Beckett, A.H., J.W. Gorrod, and P. Jenner: A possible relationship between pKa1 and lipid solubility and the amounts excreted in urine of some tobacco alkaloids given to man; J. Pharm. Pharmac. 24 (1972) 115–120. Search in Google Scholar

33. Armitage, A., C. Dollery, T. Houseman, E. Kohner, P.J. Lewis, and D. Turner: Absorption of nicotine from small cigars; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 23 (1978) 143–151. Search in Google Scholar

34. Armitage, A.K., M. Dixon, B.E. Frost, D.C. Mariner, and N.M. Sinclair: The effect of tobacco blend additives on the retention of nicotine and solanesol in the human respiratory tract and on subsequent plasma nicotine concentrations during cigarette smoking; Chem. Res. Toxicol. 17 (2004) 537–544. Search in Google Scholar

35. Wald, N.J., M. Idle, J. Boreham, A. Bailey, and H. Van Vunakis: Serum cotinine levels in pipe smokers: Evidence against nicotine as a cause of coronary heart disease; Lancet 2 (1981) 775–777. Search in Google Scholar

36. Gori, G.B., N.L. Benowitz, and C.J. Lynch: Mouth verses deep airways absorption of nicotine in cigarette smokers. Pharmacol; Biochem. Behav. 25 (1986) 1181–1184. Search in Google Scholar

37. Rieben, F.W.: Smoking behaviour and increase in nicotine and carboxyhaemoglobin in venous blood; Clin. Invest. 70 (1992) 335–342. Search in Google Scholar

38. Benowitz, N.L.: Pharmacologic aspects of cigarette smoking and nicotine addiction; N. Engl. J. Med. 319 (1988) 1318–1330. Search in Google Scholar

39. Armitage, A.K., C.T. Dollery, C.F. George, T.H. Houseman, P.J. Lewis, and D.M. Turner: Absorption and metabolism of nicotine from cigarettes; Br. Med. J. 4 (1975) 313–316. Search in Google Scholar

40. Henningfield, J.E., E.D. London, and N.L. Benowitz: Arterial-venous differences in plasma concentrations of nicotine after cigarette smoking; JAMA 263 (1990) 2049–2050. Search in Google Scholar

41. Lunell, E., L. Molander, K. Ekberg, and J. Wahren: Site of nicotine absorption from a vapour inhaler – comparison with cigarette smoking; Eur. J. Pharmacol. 55 (2000) 737–741. Search in Google Scholar

42. Herning, R.I., R.T. Jones, N.L. Benowitz, and A.H. Mines: How a cigarette is smoked determines nicotine blood levels; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 33 (1983) 84–90. Search in Google Scholar

43. Adlkofer, F., G. Scherer, A. Biber, W.-D. Heller, P.N. Lee, and H. Schievelbein: Consistency of nicotine intake in smokers of cigarettes with varying nicotine yields; in: Nicotine, Smoking and the Low Tar Programme, edited by N. Wald and P. Froggart; Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989, pp. 116–130. Search in Google Scholar

44. Byrd, G.D., J.H. Robinson, W.S. Caldwell, and J.D. deBethizy: Comparison of measured and FTC-predicted nicotine uptake in smokers; Psychopharmacology 122 (1995) 95–103. Search in Google Scholar

45. Benowitz, N.L., F. Kuyt, and P. Jacob III.: Circadian blood nicotine concentrations during cigarette smoking; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 32 (1982) 758–764. Search in Google Scholar

46. Russell, M.A.H., C. Wilson, U.A. Patel, C. Feyerabend, and P.V. Cole: Plasma nicotine levels after smoking cigarettes with high, medium and low nicotine yields; Br. Med. J. 2 (1975) 414–416. Search in Google Scholar

47. Russell, M.A.H., M. Jarvis, R. Iyer, and C. Feyerabend: Relationship of nicotine yield of cigarettes to blood nicotine concentration in smokers; Br. Med. J. (1980) 972–976. Search in Google Scholar

48. Benowitz, N.L., S.M. Hall, R.L. Herning, P. Jacob, III., R.T. Jones, and A.-L. Osman: Smokers of low-yield cigarettes do not consume less nicotine; N. Engl. J. Med. 309 (1983) 139–142. Search in Google Scholar

49. Ebert, R.V., K.E. McNabb, K.T. McCuskar, and S.L. Snow: Amount of nicotine and carbon monoxide inhaled by smokers of low-tar, low-nicotine cigarettes; JAMA 250 (1983) 2840–2842. Search in Google Scholar

50. Gori, G.B. and C.J. Lynch: Smoker intake from cigarettes in the 1-mg Federal Trade Commission tar class; Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 3 (1983) 110–120. Search in Google Scholar

51. Gori, G.B. and C.J. Lynch: Analytical cigarette yields as predictors of smoke bioavailability; Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 5 (1985) 314–326. Search in Google Scholar

52. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob III.: Daily intake of nicotine during cigarette smoking; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 35 (1984) 499–504. Search in Google Scholar

53. Feyerabend, C., R.M.J. Ings, and M.A.H. Russell: Nicotine pharmacokinetics and its application to intake from smoking; Br. J. clin. Pharmac. 19 (1985) 239–247. Search in Google Scholar

54. Bridges, R.B., J.W. Humble, J.A. Turbek, and S.R. Rehm: Smoking history, cigarette yield and smoking behavior as determinants of smoke exposure; Eur. J. Respi. Dis. 69 (Suppl. 146) (1986) 129–137. Search in Google Scholar

55. Bridges, R.B., J.G. Combs, J.W. Humble, J.A. Turbek, S.R. Rehm, and N.J. Haley: Population characteristics and cigarette yield as determinants of smoke exposure; Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 37 (1990) 17–28. Search in Google Scholar

56. Zacny, J.P. and M.L. Stitzer: Cigarette brand-switching: effects on smoke exposure and smoking behavior; J. Pharmacol. Expt. Ther. 246 (1988) 619–627. Search in Google Scholar

57. Kolonen, S.A. and E.V.J. Puhakainen: Assessment of the automated colorimetric and the high-performance liquid chromatographic methods for nicotine intake by urine samples of smokers’ smoking low- and medium-yield cigarettes; Clin. Chim. Acta 196 (1991) 159–166. Search in Google Scholar

58. Bruckert, E., N. Jacob, L. Lamaire, J. Truffert, F. Percheron, and J.L. de Gennes: Relationship between smoking status and serum lipids in a hyperlipidemic population and analysis of possible confounding factors; Clin. Chem. 38 (1992) 1698–1705. Search in Google Scholar

59. Woodward, M. and H. Tunstall-Pedoe: Self-titration of nicotine: evidence from the Scottish Heart Health Study; Addiction 88 (1993) 821–830. Search in Google Scholar

60. Coultas, D.B., C.A. Stidley, and J.M. Samet: Cigarette yields of tar and nicotine and markers of exposure to tobacco smoke; Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 148 (1993) 435–440. Search in Google Scholar

61. Hee, J., F. Callais, I. Momas, A.M. Laurent, S. Min, P. Molinier, M. Chastagnier, J.R. Claude, and B. Festy: Smokers’ behavior and exposure according to cigarette yield and smoking experience; Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 52 (1995) 195–203. Search in Google Scholar

62. Andersson, G., E.K. Vala, and M. Curvall: The influence of cigarette consumption and smoking machine yields of tar and nicotine on the nicotine uptake and oral mucosal lesions in smokers; J. Oral Pathol. Med. 26 (1997) 117–123. Search in Google Scholar

63. Byrd, G.D., R.A. Davies, W.S. Caldwell, J.H. Robinson, and J.D. deBethizy: A further study of FTC yield and nicotine absorption in smokers. Psycho-pharmacology 139 (1998) 291–229. Search in Google Scholar

64. Jarvis, M.J., R. Boreham, P. Primatesta, C. Feyerabend, and A. Bryant: Nicotine yield from machine-smoked cigarettes and nicotine intakes in smokers: Evidence from a representative population survey; J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 93 (2001) 134–138. Search in Google Scholar

65. Ueda, K., I. Kawachi, M. Nakmura, H. Nogami, N. Shirokawa, S. Masui, A. Okayama, and A. Oshima: Cigarette nicotine yields and nicotine intake among Japanese male smokers; Tobacco Control 11 (2002) 55–60. Search in Google Scholar

66. Nakazawa, A., M. Shigeta, and K. Ozasa: Smoking cigarettes of low nicotine yield does not reduce nicotine intake as expected: A study of nicotine dependency in Japanese males; BMC Public Health 4 (2004) 28. Search in Google Scholar

67. Federal Trade Commission: Cigarettes. Testing for tar and nicotine content – statements of considerations; Fed. Regist. 32 (1967) 11178. Search in Google Scholar

68. Sato, H. and S. Araki: Yields and daily consumption of cigarettes in Japan in 1969–1966; J. Epidemiol. 10 (2000) 7–15. Search in Google Scholar

69. National Cancer Institute: Risks associated with cigarette smoking with low machine-measured yields of tar and nicotine. Smoking and Tobacco Control Monograph No. 13. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Health, National Cancer Institute; NIH Publ. No. 02-5074, 2001. Search in Google Scholar

70. Benowitz, N.L., P. Jacob, III., C. Denaro, and R. Jenkins: Stable isotope studies of nicotine kinetics and bioavailability; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 49 (1991) 270–277. Search in Google Scholar

71. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob, III.: Metabolism of nicotine to cotinine studied by a dual stable isotope method; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 56 (1994) 483–493. Search in Google Scholar

72. Pérez-Stable, E.J., B. Herrera, P. Jacob III., and N.L. Benowitz: Nicotine metabolism and intake in black and white smokers; JAMA 280 (1998) 152–156. Search in Google Scholar

73. Benowitz, N.L., E.J. Pérez-Stable, B. Herrera, and P. Jacob III.: Slower metabolism and reduced intake of nicotine from cigarette smoking in Chinese-Americans; J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 94 (2002) 108–115. Search in Google Scholar

74. Byrd, G.D., K.-M. Chang, J.M. Greene, and J.D. deBethizy: Evidence for urinary excretion of glucu-ronide conjugates of nicotine, cotinine and trans-3’-hydroxycotinine in smokers; Drug Metab. Dispos. 20 (1992) 192–197. Search in Google Scholar

75. Curvall, M., E. Kazemi-Vala, and G. Englund: Conjugation pathways in nicotine metabolism; in: Effects of Nicotine on Biological Systems, edited by F. Adlkofer and K. Thurau, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 1991, pp. 69–75.10.1007/978-3-0348-7457-1_10 Search in Google Scholar

76. Seaton, M.J., E.S. Vesell, H. Luo, and E.M. Hawes: Identification of radiolabeled metabolites of nicotine in rat bile. Synthesis of S-(–)-nicotine N-glucuronide and direct separation of nicotine-derived conjugates using high-performance liquid chromatography; J. Chroma-togr. 621 (1993) 49–53. Search in Google Scholar

77. Caldwell, W.S., J.M. Greene, G.D. Byrd, K.M. Chang, M.S. Uhrig, J.D. deBethizy, P.A. Crooks, B.S. Bhatti, and R.M. Riggs: Characterization of the glucuronide conjugate of cotinine: A previously unidentified major metabolite of nicotine in smokers’ urine; Chem. Res. Toxicol. 5 (1992) 280–285. Search in Google Scholar

78. Schepers, G., D. Demetriou, K. Rustemeier, P. Voncken, and B. Diehl: Nicotine phase 2 metabolites in human urine – structure of metabolically formed trans-3’-hydroxycotinine glucuronide; Med. Sci. Res. 20 (1992) 863–865. Search in Google Scholar

79. Gorrod, J.W. and G. Schepers: Biotransformation of nicotine in mammalian systems; in: Analytical Determination of Nicotine and Related Compounds and their Metabolites, edited by J.W. Gorrod and P. Jacob, III., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 45–67.10.1016/B978-044450095-3/50004-8 Search in Google Scholar

80. De Schepper, P.J., A. Van Heecken, P. Daenens, and J.M. Van Rossum: Kinetics of cotinine after oral and intravenous administration; Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 31 (1987) 583–588. Search in Google Scholar

81. Scherer, G., L. Jarczyk, W.-D. Heller, A. Biber, G.B. Neurath, and F. Adlkofer: Pharmacokinetics of nicotine, cotinine and 3’-hydroxycotinine in cigarette smokers. Klin. Wochenschr. 66 (Suppl. XI)(1988) 5–11. Search in Google Scholar

82. Kyerematen, G.A., M.L. Morgan, B. Chattopadhyay, J.D. deBethizy, and E.S. Vesell: Disposition of nicotine and eight metabolites in smokers and nonsmokers: Identification in smokers of two metabolites that are longer lived than cotinine; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 48 (1990) 641–651. Search in Google Scholar

83. Curvall, M., E. Kazemi-Vala, C.R. Enzell, and J. Wahren: Simulation and evaluation of nicotine intake during passive smoking: Cotinine measurements in body fluids of nonsmokers given intraveneous infusions of nicotine; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 47 (1990) 42–49. Search in Google Scholar

84. Curvall, M., C.-E. Elwin, E. Kazemi-Vala, C. Warholm, and C.R. Enzell: The pharmacokinetics of cotinine in plasma and saliva from non-smoking healthy volunteers; Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 38 (1990) 281–287. Search in Google Scholar

85. Kyerematen, G.A. and E.S. Vesell: Metabolism of nicotine; Drug Metab. Rev. 23 (1991) 3–41.10.3109/03602539109029754 Search in Google Scholar

86. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob, III.: Effects of cigarette smoking and carbon monoxide on nicotine and cotinine metabolism; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 67 (2000) 653–659. Search in Google Scholar

87. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob, III.: Trans-3’-hydroxyco-tinine: disposition kinetics, effects and plasma levels during cigarette smoking; J. Clin. Pharmacol. 51 (2001) 53–59. Search in Google Scholar

88. Benowitz, N.L., E.J. Perez-Stable, I. Fong, G. Modin, B. Herrera, and P. Jacob, III.: Ethnic differences in N-glucuronidation of nicotine and cotinine; J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 291 (1999) 1196–1203. Search in Google Scholar

89. Zevin, S., P. Jacob, III., P. Geppetti, and N.L. Benowitz: Clinical pharmacology of oral cotinine; Drug Alcohol Depend. 60 (2000) 13–18.10.1016/S0376-8716(00)80003-4 Search in Google Scholar

90. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob, III.: Nicotine and cotinine elimination pharmacokinetics in smokers and non-smokers; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 53 (1993) 316–323. Search in Google Scholar

91. Langmann, P., A. Bienert, M. Zilly, T. Väth, E. Richter, and H. Klinker: Influence of smoking on cotinine and caffeine plasma levels in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis; Eur. J. Med. Res. 5 (2000) 217–221. Search in Google Scholar

92. Molander, L., A. Hansson, E. Lunell, L. Alainentalo, M. Hoffmann, and R. Larsson: Pharmacokinetics of nicotine in kidney failure; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 68 (2000) 250–260. Search in Google Scholar

93. Benowitz, N.L., P. Jacob, III., I. Fong, and S. Gupta: Nicotine metabolic profile in man: comparison of cigarette smoking and transdermal nicotine; J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 268 (1994) 296–303. Search in Google Scholar

94. Molander, L., A. Hansson, and E. Lunell: Pharmacokinetics of nicotine in healthy elderly people; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 69 (2001) 57–65. Search in Google Scholar

95. Dempsey, D., P. Jacob, III., and N.L. Benowitz: Accelerated metabolism of nicotine and cotinine in pregnant smokers; J. Pharmacol. Expt. Ther. 301 (2002) 594–598. Search in Google Scholar

96. Dempsey, D., P. Jacob, III., and N.L. Benowitz: Nicotine metabolism and elimination kinetics in newborns; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 67 (2000) 458–465. Search in Google Scholar

97. Hecht, S.S., S.G. Carmella, and S.E. Murphy: Effects of watercress consumption on urinary metabolites of nicotine in smokers; Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 8 (1999) 907–913. Search in Google Scholar

98. Meger, M., I. Meger-Kossien, A. Schuler-Metz, D. Janket, and G. Scherer: Simultaneous determination of nicotine and eight metabolites in urine of smokers using liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry; J. Chromatogr. B 778 (2002) 251–261. Search in Google Scholar

99. Benowitz, N.L., B. Herrera, and P. Jacob, III.: Mentholated cigarette smoking inhibits nicotine metabolism; J. Pharmacol. Expt. Ther. 310 (2004) 1208–1215. Search in Google Scholar

100. Flammang, A.M., H.V. Gelboin, T. Aoyama, F.J. Gonzales, and G.D. McCoy: Nicotine metabolism by cDNA-expressed human cytochrome P-450s; Biochem. Arch. 8 (1992) 1–8. Search in Google Scholar

101. McCracken, N.W., S. Cholerton, and J.R. Idle: Cotinine formation by cDNA-expressed human cytochromes P450; Med. Sci. Res. 20 (1992) 877–878. Search in Google Scholar

102. Nakajima, M., T. Yamamoto, K. Nunoya, T. Yokoi, K. Nagashima, K. Inoue, Y. Funae, N. Shimada, T. Kamataki, and Y. Kuroiwa: Role of human cytochrome P4502A6 in C-oxidation of nicotine; Drug Metab. Dispos. 24 (1996) 1212–1217. Search in Google Scholar

103. Bao, Z., T. Su, X. Ding, and J.-Y. Hong: Metabolism of nicotine and cotinine by human cytochrome P450 2A13 (CYP2A13); 13th International Symposium on Micro-somes and Drug Oxidations, July 10–14 2000, Stressa, Italy, Abstract 137. Search in Google Scholar

104. Messina, E.S., R.F. Tyndale, and E.M. Sellers: A major role for CYP2A6 in nicotine C-oxidation by human liver microsomes; J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 282 (1997) 1608–1614. Search in Google Scholar

105. Yamazaki, H., K. Inoue, M. Hashimoto, and T. Shimada: Roles of CYP2A6 and CYP2B6 in nicotine C-oxidation by human liver microsomes; Arch. Toxicol. 73 (1999) 65–70. Search in Google Scholar

106. Nakajima, M., T. Yamamoto, K. Nunoya, T. Yokoi, K. Nagashima, K. Inoue, Y. Funae, N. Shimada, T. Kamataki, and Y. Kuroiwa: Characterization of CYP2A6 involved in 3’-hydroxylation of cotinine in human liver microsomes; J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 277 (1996) 1010–1015. Search in Google Scholar

107. Benowitz, N.L., P. Jacob, III., and E. Perez-Stable: CYP2D6 phenotype and the metabolism of nicotine and cotinine; Pharmacogenetics 6 (1996) 239–242. Search in Google Scholar

108. Marez, D., M. Legrand, N. Sabbagh, J.-M. LoGuidice, C. Spire, J.-J. Lafitte, U.A. Meyer, and F. Broly: Polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 CYP2D6 gene in a European population: characterization of 48 mutations and 53 alleles, their frequencies and evolution; Pharmacogenetics 7 (1997) 193–202. Search in Google Scholar

109. Lang, T., K. Klein, J. Fisher, A.K. Nüssler, P. Neuhaus, U. Hofmann, M. Eichelbaum, M. Schwab, and U.M. Zanger: Extensive genetic polymorphism in the human CYP2B6 gene with impact on expression and function in human liver; Pharmacogenetics 11 (2001) 399–415. Search in Google Scholar

110. Tricker, A.R.: Nicotine metabolism, human drug metabolism polymorphisms and smoking behaviour; Toxicology 183 (2003) 151–173. Search in Google Scholar

111. Zhang, X., Y. Chen, Y. Liu, X. Ren, Q.Y. Zhang, M. Caggana, and X. Ding: Single nucleotide polymor-phisms of the human cyp2a13 gene: Evidence for a null allele; Drug Metab. Dispos. 30 (2003) 1081–1085. Search in Google Scholar

112. Cashman, J.R., S.B. Park, Z.C. Yang, S.A. Wrighton, P. Jacob, III., and N.L. Benowitz: Metabolism of nicotine by human liver microsomes: Stereoselective formation of trans-nicotine N’-oxide; Chem. Res. Toxicol. 5 (1992) 639–646. Search in Google Scholar

113. Kuehl, G. and S.E. Murphy: N-Glucuronidation of nicotine and cotinine by human liver microsomes and heterologously expressed UDP-glucuronosyltrans-ferases; Drug Metab. Dispos. 31 (2003) 1361–1368. Search in Google Scholar

114. Benowitz, N.L. and P. Jacob, III.: Individual differences in nicotine kinetics and metabolism in humans; NIDA Res. Monogr. 173 (1997) 48–64. Search in Google Scholar

115. Sellers, E.M.: Pharmacogenetics and ethnoracial differences in smoking; JAMA 280 (1998) 179–180. Search in Google Scholar

116. Russell, M.A.H. and C. Feyerabend: Cigarette smoking: a dependence on high-nicotine boli; Drug Metab. Rev. 8 (1978) 29–57. Search in Google Scholar

117. Benowitz, N.L., O.F. Pomerleau, C.S. Pomerleau, and P. Jacob, III.: Nicotine metabolite ratio as a predictor of cigarette consumption; Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003) 621–624. Search in Google Scholar

118. Davis, R.A. and M. Curvall: Determination of nicotine and its metabolites in biological fluids: in vivo studies; in: Analytical Determination of Nicotine and Related Compounds and their Metabolites, edited by J.W. Gorrod and P. Jacob, III., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 583–644.10.1016/B978-044450095-3/50015-2 Search in Google Scholar

119. Smith, R.F., H.M. Mather, and G.A. Ellard: Assessment of simple colorimetric procedures to determine smoking status of diabetic subjects; Clin. Chem. 44 (1998) 275–280. Search in Google Scholar

120. Langone, J.J., H.B. Gjika, and H. Van Vunakis: Use of immunoassay techniques for the determination of nicotine and its metabolites; in: Analytical Determination of Nicotine and Related Compounds and their Metabolites, edited by J.W. Gorrod and P. Jacob, III., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 265–284.10.1016/B978-044450095-3/50009-7 Search in Google Scholar

121. Jacob, P., III and G.D. Byrd: Use of gas chromato-graphic and mass spectrometric techniques for the deter-mination of nicotine and its metabolites; in: Analytical Determination of Nicotine and Related Compounds and their Metabolites, edited by J.W. Gorrod and P. Jacob, III., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 191–224.10.1016/B978-044450095-3/50007-3 Search in Google Scholar

122. Crooks, P.A. and G.D. Byrd: Use of high performance liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric (LC-MS) techniques for the determination of nicotine and its metabolites; in: Analytical Determination of Nicotine and Related Compounds and their Metabolites, edited by J.W. Gorrod and P. Jacob, III., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 225–264.10.1016/B978-044450095-3/50008-5 Search in Google Scholar

123. Bieber, A., G. Scherer, I. Hoepfner, F. Adlkofer, W.-D. Heller, J.E. Haddow, and G.J. Knight: The determination of nicotine and cotinine in human serum and urine: an interlaboratory study; Toxicol. Lett. 35 (1987) 45–52. Search in Google Scholar

124. Feyerabend, C. and M.A.H. Russell: Assay of nicotine in biological materials: sources of contamination and their elimination; J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 32 (1980) 178–181. Search in Google Scholar

125. Curvall, M., E. Kazemi-Vala, and C.R. Enzell: Simultaneous determination of nicotine and cotinine in plasma using capillary column gas chromatography with nitrogen-sensitive detection; J. Chromatogr. B 232 (1982) 283–293. Search in Google Scholar

126. Jones, D., M. Curvall, L. Abrahamsson, E. Kazemi-Vala, and C. Enzell: Quantitative analysis of plasma nicotine using selected ion monitoring at high reso-lution. Biomed. Mass Spectrometry 9 (1982) 539–545. Search in Google Scholar

127. Teeuwen, H.W.A., R.J.W. Aalders, and J.M. Van Rossum: Simultaneous estimation of nicotine and cotinine levels in biological fluids using high-resolution capillary-column gas chromatography combined with solid phase extraction work-up; Molecular Biol. Reports 13 (1989) 165–175. Search in Google Scholar

128. Jacob, P. III., L. Yu, M. Wilson, and N.L. Benowitz: Selected ion monitoring method for determination of nicotine, cotinine and deuterium-labeled analogs: absence of an isotope effect in the clearance of (S)-nicotine-3’,3’-d2 in humans; Biol. Mass Spectrom. 20 (1991) 247–252. Search in Google Scholar

129. Peach, H., G.A. Ellard, P.J. Jenner, and R.W. Morris: A simple, inexpensive urine test of smoking; Thorax 40 (1985) 351–357. Search in Google Scholar

130. Ubbink, J.B., J. Lagendijk, and W.H.H. Vermaak: Simple high-performance liquid chromatographic method to verify the direct barbituric acid assay for urinary cotinine; J. Chromatogr. 620 (1993) 254–259. Search in Google Scholar

131. Barlow, R.D., R.B. Stone, N.J. Wald, and E.V.J. Puha-kainen: The direct barbituric acid assay for nicotine metabolites in urine: a simple colorimetric test for the routine assessment of smoking status and cigarette smoke intake; Clin. Chim. Acta 165 (1987) 45–52. Search in Google Scholar

132. Barlow, R.D., P.A. Thompson and R.B. Stone: Simultaneous determination of nicotine, cotinine and five additional nicotine metabolites in the urine of smokers using pre-column derivatization and high-performance liquid chromatography; J. Chromatogr. 419 (1987) 375–380. Search in Google Scholar

133. Moore, J., M. Greenwood, and N. Sinclair: Automation of a high-performance liquid chromatographic assay for the determination of nicotine, cotinine and 3’-hydroxycotinine in human urine; J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 8 (1990) 1051–1054. Search in Google Scholar

134. Puhakainen, E.V.J, R.D. Barlow, and J.T. Salonen: An automated colorimetric assay for urine nicotine meta-bolites: a suitable alternative to cotinine assays for the asssessment of smoking status; Clin. Chim. Acta 170 (1987) 255–262. Search in Google Scholar

135. Pickert, A., T. Lingenfelser, C. Pickert, N. Birbaumer, D. Overkamp, and M. Eggstein: Comparison of a mechanized version of the “König” reaction and a fluorescence polarization immunoassay for the determination of nicotine metabolites in urine; Clin. Chem. Acta 217 (1993) 143–152. Search in Google Scholar

136. Cope, G., P. Nayyar, R. Holder, J. Gibbons, and R. Bunce: A simple near-patient test for nicotine and its metabolites in urine to assess smoking habit; Clin. Chim. Acta 256 (1996) 135–149. Search in Google Scholar

137. Parviainen, M.T. and R.D. Barlow: Assessment of ex-posure to environmental tobacco smoke using a high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of nicotine and two of its metabolites in urine; J. Chromatogr. 431 (1988) 216–221. Search in Google Scholar

138. Rustemeier, K., D. Demetriou, G. Schepers, and P. Voncken: High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of nicotine and its urinary metabolites via their 1,3-diethyl-2-thiobarbituric acid derivatives; J. Chromatogr. 613 (1993) 95–103. Search in Google Scholar

139. Chambers, K.L., G.A. Ellard, A.T. Hewson, and R.F. Smith: Urine test for the assessment of smoking status; Br. J. Biomed. Sci. 58 (2001) 61–65. Search in Google Scholar

140. Langone, J.J., H.B. Gjika, and H. Van Vunakis: Nicotine and its metabolites. Radioimmunoassays for nicotine and cotinine; Biochemistry 12 (1973) 5025–5030. Search in Google Scholar

141. Langone, J.J. and H. Van Vunakis: Radioimmunoassay of nicotine, cotinine and (-(-pyridyl)-(-oxo-N-methylbutyramide; Methods Enzymol. 84 (1982) 628–640. Search in Google Scholar

142. Knight, G.J., P. Wylie, M.S. Holman, and J.E. Haddow: Improved 125I radioimmunoassay for cotinine by selective removal of bridge antibodies; Clin. Chem. 31 (1985) 118–121. Search in Google Scholar

143. Bjercke, R.J., G. Cook, N. Rychlik, H.B. Gjika, H. Van Vunakis, and J.J. Langone: Stereospecific monoclonal antibodies to nicotine and cotinine and their use in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays; J. Immunol. Methods 90 (1986) 203–213. Search in Google Scholar

144. Langone, J.J., G. Cook, R.J. Bjercke, and M.H. Lif-schitz: Monoclonal antibody ELISA for cotinine in saliva and urine of active and passive smokers; J. Immunol. Methods 114 (1988) 73–78. Search in Google Scholar

145. Benkirane, S., A. Nicolas, M.-M. Galteau, and G. Siest: Highly sensitive immunoassays for the determination of cotinine in serum and saliva. Comparison between RIA and an avidin-biotin ELISA; Eur. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 29 (1991) 405–410. Search in Google Scholar

146. Hansel, M.C., F.J. Rowell, J. Landon, and A.M. Sidki: Single-reagent polarisation fluoroimmunoassay for cotinine (a nicotine metabolite) in urine; Ann. Clin. Biochem. 5 (1986) 596–602. Search in Google Scholar

147. Alterman, A.I., P. Gariti, and R.S. Niedbala: Varying results for immunoassay screening kits for cotinine level; Psychol. Addict. Behav. 16 (2002) 256–259. Search in Google Scholar

148. Niedbala, R.S., N. Haley, S. Kardos, and K. Kardos: Automated homogenous immunoassay analysis of cotinine in urine; J. Anal. Toxicol. 26 (2002) 166–170. Search in Google Scholar

149. Van Vunakis, H., J.J. Langone, and A. Milunsky: Nicotine and cotinine in the amniotic fluid of smokers in the second trimester of pregnancy; Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 120 (1974) 64–66. Search in Google Scholar

150. Haines, C.F., Jr., D.K. Mahajan, D. Miljikovif, M. Miljikovif, and E.S. Vesell: Radioimmunoassay of plasma nicotine in habituated and naive smokers; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 16 (1974) 1083–1090. Search in Google Scholar

151. Castro, A., N. Monji, H. Ali, M. Yi, E.R. Bowman, and H. McKennis, Jr.: Nicotine antibodies: comparison of ligand specificities of antibodies produced against two nicotine conjugates; Eur. J. Biochem. 104 (1980) 331–340. Search in Google Scholar

152. Hill, P. and H. Marquardt: Plasma and urine changes after smoking different brands of cigarettes; Clin. Pharm. 27 (1980) 652–658. Search in Google Scholar

153. Hellberg, D., S. Nilsson, N.J. Haley, D. Hoffman, and E. Wynder: Smoking and cervical intraepithelial neo-plasia: nicotine and cotinine in serum and cervical mucus in smokers and nonsmokers; Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 158 (1988) 910–913. Search in Google Scholar

154. Van Vunakis, H., H.B. Gijka, and J.J. Langone: Radioimunnoassay for nicotine and cotinine; in: Environmental carcinogens-methods of analysis and exposure measurement, Vol. 12: International Agency for Research on Cancer, edited by B. Seifert, H. van der Wiel, B. Bodet, and I.K. O'Neill, Lyon, 1993, pp. 293–299. Search in Google Scholar

155. Pacifici, R., I. Altiere, L. Gandini, A. Lenzi, A.R. Passa, S. Pichini, M. Rosa, P. Zuccaro, and F. Dondero: Environmental tobacco smoke: nicotine and cotinine in semen; Environ. Res. 68 (1995) 69–72. Search in Google Scholar

156. Sasson, I.M., N.J. Haley., D. Hoffmann, E.L. Wynder, D. Hellberg, and S. Nilsson: Cigarette smoking and neoplasia of the uterine cervix: smoker constituents in cervical mucus; N. Engl. J. Med. 312 (1985) 315–316. Search in Google Scholar

157. Haley, N.J. and D. Hoffmann: Analysis for nicotine and cotinine in hair to determine cigarette smoker status; Clin. Chem. 31 (1985) 1598–1600. Search in Google Scholar

158. Eliopoulos, C., J. Klein, K. Phan, B. Knie, M. Greenwald, D. Chitayat, and G. Koren: Hair concentrations of nicotine and cotinine in women and their new-born infants; JAMA 271 (1994) 621–623. Search in Google Scholar

159. Woodruff, S.I., T.L. Conway, C.C. Edwards, and M.F. Hovell: Acceptability and validity of hair collection from Latino children to assess exposure to environ-mental tobacco smoke; Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003) 375–385. Search in Google Scholar

160. Ostrea, E.M., D.K. Knapp, A. Romero, M. Montes, and A.R. Ostrea: Meconium analysis to assess fetal ex-posure to nicotine by active and passive maternal smoking; J. Pediatr. 124 (1994) 471–476. Search in Google Scholar

161. Heinrich-Ramm, R., R. Wegner, A.H. Garde, and X. Baur: Cotinine excretion (tobacco smoke biomarker) of smokers and nonsmokers: comprison of GC/MS and RIA results; Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 205 (2002) 493–499. Search in Google Scholar

162. Jauniaux, E., B. Gulbis, G. Acharya, P. Thiry, and C. Rodeck: Maternal tobacco exposure and cotinine levels in fetal fluids in the first half of pregnancy; Obstet. Gynecol. 93 (1999) 25–29. Search in Google Scholar

163. Bjercke, R.J., G. Cook, and J.J. Langone: Comparison of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies to cotinine in nonisotopic and isotopic immunoassays; J. Immunol. Methods 96 (1987) 239–246. Search in Google Scholar

164. Perkins, S.L., J.F. Livesey, E.A. Escares, J.M. Belcher, and D.K. Dudley: High-performance liquid-chromato-graphic method compared with a modified radioimmu-noassay of cotinine in plasma; Clin. Chem. 37 (1991) 1989–1992. Search in Google Scholar

165. Vine, M.F., B.S. Hulka, B.H. Margolin, Y.K. Truong, P.-C. Hu, M.H. Schramm, J.D. Griffith, M. McCann, and R.B. Everson: Cotinine concentrations in semen, urine and blood of smokers and nonsmokers; Am. J. Public Health 83 (1993) 1335–1338. Search in Google Scholar

166. Nafstad, P., J. Kongerud, G. Botton, P. Urdal, T. Sil-sand, B.S. Pedersen, and J.J.K. Jaakkola: Fetal exposure to tobacco smoke products, a comparison between self-reported maternal smoking and concentrations of cotinine and thiocyanate in cord serum; Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 75 (1996) 902–907. Search in Google Scholar

167. Rosevear, S.K., D.W. Holt, T.D. Lee, W.C.L. Ford, P.G. Wardle, and M.G.R. Hull: Smoking and decreased ferti-lization rates in vitro; Lancet 340 (1992) 1195–1196. Search in Google Scholar

168. Zenzes, M.T., T.E. Reed, P. Wang, and J. Klein: Cotinine, a major metabolite of nicotine, is detectable in follicular fluids of passive smokers in in vitro fertilization therapy; Fertil. Steril. 66 (1996) 614–619. Search in Google Scholar

169. Younglai, E.V., W.G. Foster, E.G. Hughes, K. Trim, and J.F. Jarrell: Levels of environmental contaminants in human follicular fluid, serum and seminal plasma of couples undergoing in vitro fertilization; Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 43 (2002) 121–126. Search in Google Scholar

170. Knight, J.M., C. Eliopoulos, J. Klein, M. Greenwald, and G. Koren: Passive smoking in children. Racial differences in systemic exposure to cotinine by hair and urine analysis; Chest 109 (1996) 446–450. Search in Google Scholar

171. Zenzes, M.T., R. Bielecki, and T.E. Reed: Detection of benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide-DNA adducts in sperm of men exposed to cigarette smoke; Fertil. Steril. 72 (1999) 330–335. Search in Google Scholar

172. Wong, W.Y., C.M.G. Thomas, H.M.W.M. Merkus, G.A. Zielhuis, W.H. Doesburg, and R.P.M. Steegers-Theunissen: Cigarette smoking and the risk of male factor subfertility: minor association between cotinine in seminal plasma and semen morphology; Fertil. Steril. 74 (2000) 900–935. Search in Google Scholar

173. Van Vunakis, H., H.B. Gijka, and J.J. Langone: Radio-immunoassay for nicotine and cotinine; in: Environ-mental carcinogens-methods of analysis and exposure measurement, Vol. 9, International Agency for Research on Cancer, edited by I.K. O'Neill, K.D. Brunnemann, B. Bodet, and D. Hoffmann, Lyon, 1987, pp. 317–330. Search in Google Scholar

174. Watts, R.R., J.J. Langone, G.J. Knight, and J. Lewtas: Cotinine analytical workshop report: consideration of analytical methods for determining cotinine in human body fluids as a measure of passive exposure to tobacco smoke; Environ. Health Perspect. 84 (1990) 173–182. Search in Google Scholar

175. Schepers, G. and R.-A. Walk: Cotinine determination by immunoassays may be influenced by other nicotine metabolites; Arch. Toxicol. 62 (1988) 395–397. Search in Google Scholar

176. Zuccaro, P., S. Pichini, I. Altieri, M. Rosa, M. Pelle-grini, and R. Pacifici: Interference of nicotine meta-bolites in cotinine determination by RIA; Clin. Chem. 43 (1997) 181–182. Search in Google Scholar

177. Hansen, Å.M., A.H. Garde, J.M. Christensen, N. Eller, L.E. Knudsen, and R. Heinrich-Ramm: Reference interval and subject variation in excretion of urinary metabolites of nicotine from non-smoking healthy subjects in Denmark; Clin. Chim. Acta 304 (2001) 125–132. Search in Google Scholar

178. Fergusson, B.B., D.J. Wilson, and W. Schaffner: Determination of nicotine concentrations in human milk; Am. J. Dis. Child. 130 (1976) 837–839. Search in Google Scholar

179. Hengen, N. and M. Hengen: Gas-liquid chromato-graphic determination of nicotine and cotinine in plasma; Clin. Chem. 24 (1978) 50–53. Search in Google Scholar

180. Feyerabend, C. and M.A.H. Russell: Improved gas-chromatographic method and micro-extraction technique for the measurement of nicotine in biological fluids; J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 31 (1979) 73–76. Search in Google Scholar

181. Jacob, P., III., M. Wilson, and N.L. Benowitz: Im-proved gas chromatographic method for the deter-mination of nicotine and cotinine in biologic fluids; J. Chromatogr. 222 (1981) 61–70. Search in Google Scholar

182. Jacob, P., III., A.T. Shulgin, L. Yu, and N.L. Benowitz: Determination of the nicotine metabolite trans-3’-hydroxycotinine in urine of smokers using gas chro-matography with nitrogen-selective detection or selected ion monitoring; J. Chromatogr. 583 (1992) 145–154. Search in Google Scholar

183. Kogan, M.J., K. Verebey, J.H. Jaffee, and S.J. Mulé: Simultaneous determination of nicotine and cotinine in human plasma by nitrogen detection gas-liquid chroma-tography; J. Forensic Sci. 26 (1981) 6–11. Search in Google Scholar

184. Stehlik, G., J. Kainzbauer, H. Tausch, and O. Richter: Improved method for routine determination of nicotine and its main metabolites in biological fluids; J. Chromatogr. 232 (1982) 295–303. Search in Google Scholar

185. Davis, R.A.: The determination of nicotine and cotinine in plasma; J. Chrom. Sci. 24 (1986) 134–141. Search in Google Scholar

186. Voncken, P., G. Schepers, and K.H. Schäfer: Capillary gas chromatographic determination of trans-3’-hydroxy-cotinine simultaneously with nicotine and cotinine in urine and blood samples; J. Chromatogr. 479 (1989) 410–418. Search in Google Scholar

187. Petrakis, N.L., L.D. Gruenke, T.C. Beelen, N. Castag-noli, and J.C. Craig: Nicotine in breast fluid of non-lactating women; Science 199 (1978) 303–304. Search in Google Scholar

188. Davoli, E., L. Stramare, R. Fanelli, L. Diomede, and M. Salmona: Rapid solid-phase extraction method for automated gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric determination of nicotine in plasma; J. Chromatogr. B 707 (1998) 312–316. Search in Google Scholar

189. Daenens, P., L. Laruelle, K. Callewaert, P. De Schepper, R. Galeazzi, and J. van Rossum: Determi-nation of cotinine in biological fluids by capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-selected-ion monitoring; J. Chromatogr. 342 (1985) 79–87. Search in Google Scholar

190. Skarping, G., S. Willers, and M. Dalene: Determination of the cotinine in urine using glass capillary gas chromatography and selective detection, with special reference to the biological monitoring of passive smoking; J. Chromatogr. 454 (1988) 293–301. Search in Google Scholar

191. McAdams, S.A. and M.L. Cordeiro: Simple selected ion monitoring capillary gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric method for the determination of cotinine in serum, urine and oral samples; J. Chromatogr. 615 (1993) 148–153. Search in Google Scholar

192. Lewis, S.J., N.M. Cherry, R.M.C.L. Niven, P.V. Barber, K. Wilde, and A.C. Povey: Cotinine levels and self-reported smoking status in patients attending a bronchoscopy clinic; Biomarkers 8 (2003) 218–228. Search in Google Scholar

193. James, H., Y. Tizabi, and R. Taylor: Rapid method for the simultaneous measurement of nicotine and cotinine in urine and serum by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; J. Chromatogr. B 708 (1998) 87–93. Search in Google Scholar

194. Shin, H.S., J.G. Kim, Y.J. Shin, and S.H. Jee: Sensitive and simple method for the determination of nicotine and cotinine in human urine, plasma and saliva by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry; J. Chromatogr. B 769 (2002) 177–183. Search in Google Scholar

195. Cognard, E. and C. Staub: Determination of nicotine and its major metabolite cotinine in plasma or serum by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry using ion-trap detection; Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 41 (2003) 1599–1607. Search in Google Scholar

196. Tora½o, J.S. and H.J.M. van Kan: Simultaneous determination of the tobacco smoke uptake parameters nicotine, cotinine and thiocyanate in urine, saliva and hair, using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for characterisation of smoking status of recently exposed subjects; Analyst 128 (2003) 838–843. Search in Google Scholar

197. Mousa, S., G.R. Van Loon, A.A. Houdi, and P.A. Crooks: High-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection for the determination of nicotine and N-methylnicotinium ion; J. Chromatogr. 347 (1985) 405–410. Search in Google Scholar

198. Chien, C., J.N. Diana, and P.A. Crooks, High-perfor-mance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection for the determination of nicotine in plasma; J. Pharm. Sci. 77 (1988) 277–279. Search in Google Scholar

199. Mahoney, G.N. and W. Al-Delaimy: Measurement of nicotine in hair by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection; J. Chromatogr. 753 (2001) 179–187. Search in Google Scholar

200. Machacek, D.A. and N.-S. Jiang: Quantification of cotinine in plasma and saliva by liquid chromato-graphy; Clin. Chem. 32 (1986) 979–982. Search in Google Scholar

201. Shen, H., S. Chia, Z. Ni, A. New, B. Lee, and C. Ong: Detection of oxidative damage in human sperm and the association with cigarette smoking; Reprod. Toxicol. 11 (1997) 675–680. Search in Google Scholar

202. Greaves, R., L. Trotter, S. Brennecke, and E. Janus: A simple high-pressure liquid chromatography cotinine assay: validation of smoking status in pregnant women; Ann. Clin. Biochem. 38 (2001) 333–338. Search in Google Scholar

203. Baranowski, J., G. Pochopie½, and I. Baranowska: Determination of nicotine, cotinine and caffeine in meconium using high-performance liquid chromato-graphy; J. Chromatogr. B 707 (1998) 317–321. Search in Google Scholar

204. Harlharan, M., T. VanNoord, and J.F. Greden: A high-performance liquid chromatographic method for routine simultaneous determination of nicotine and cotinine in plasma; Clin. Chem. 34 (1988) 724–729. Search in Google Scholar

205. Page-Sharp, M., T.W. Hale, L.P. Hackett, J.H. Kristen-sen, and K.F. Ilett: Measurement of nicotine and coti-nine in human milk by high-performance liquid chro-matography with ultraviolet absorbance detection; J. Chromatogr. B 796 (2003) 173–180. Search in Google Scholar

206. Ghosheh, O.H., D. Browne, T. Rogers, J. de Leon, L.P. Dwoskin, and P.A. Crooks: A simple high performance liquid chromatographic method for the quantification of total cotinine, total 3’-hydroxycotinine and caffeine in the plasma of smokers; J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 23 (2000) 543–549. Search in Google Scholar

207. Cundy, K.C. and P.A. Crooks: High-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of N-methylated metabolites of nicotine; J. Chromatogr. 306 (1984) 291–301. Search in Google Scholar

208. Kyerematen, G.A., L.H. Taylor, J.D. deBethizy, and E.S. Vesell: Radiometric-high-performance liquid chro-matographic assay for nicotine and twelve of its metabolites; J. Chromatogr. 419 (1987) 191–203. Search in Google Scholar

209. Pacifici, R., I. Altiere, L. Gandini, A. Lenzi, S. Pichini, M. Rosa, P. Zuccaro, and F. Dondero: Nicotine, cotinine and trans-3’-hydroxycotinine levels in seminal plasma of smokers: effects on sperm parameters; Ther. Drug Monit. 15 (1993) 358–363. Search in Google Scholar

210. McManus, K.T., J.D. deBethizy, D.A. Garteiz, G.A. Kyerematen, and E.S. Vesell: A new quantitative thermospray LC-MS method for nicotine and its meta-bolites in biological fluids; J. Chrom. Sci. 28 (1990) 510–516. Search in Google Scholar

211. Byrd, G.D., M.S. Uhrig, J.D. deBethizy, W.S. Caldwell, P.A. Crooks, A. Ravard, and R.M. Riggs: Direct determination of cotinine-N-glucuronide in urine using thermospray liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry; Biol. Mass Spectrom. 23 (1994) 103–107. Search in Google Scholar

212. Bentley, M.C., M. Abrar, M. Kelk, J. Cook, and K. Phillips: Validation of an assay for the determination of cotinine and 3-hydroxycotinine in human saliva using automated solid-phase extraction and liquid chromato-graphy with tandem mass spectrometry detection; J. Chromatogr. 723 (1999) 185–194. Search in Google Scholar

213. Byrd, G.D., R.A. Davis, and M.W. Ogden: A rapid LC-MS-MS method for the determination of nicotine and cotinine in serum and saliva samples from smokers: Validation and comparison with a radioimmunoassay method; J. Chrom. Sci. 43 (2005) 133–140. Search in Google Scholar

214. Bernert, J.T., Jr., J.E. McGuffey, M.A. Morrison, and J.L. Pirkle: Comparison of serum and salivary cotinine measurements by a sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry method as an indicator of exposure to tobacco smoke among smokers and nonsmokers; J. Anal. Toxicol. 24 (2000) 333–339. Search in Google Scholar

215. Bernert, J.T., W.E. Turner, J.L. Pirkle, C.S. Sosnoff, J.R. Akins, M.K. Waldrep, Q. Ann, T.R. Covey, W.E. Whitfield, E.W. Gunter, B.B. Miller, D.G. Patterson, Jr., L.L. Needham, W.H. Hannon, and E.J. Sampson: Development and validation of sensitive method for determination of serum cotinine in smokers and nonsmokers by liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure ionization tandem mass spectrometry; Clin. Chem. 43 (1997) 2281–2291. Search in Google Scholar

216. Kellogg, M.D., J. Behaderovic, O. Bhalala, and N. Rifai: Rapid and simple tandem mass spectrometry method for determination of serum cotinine concen-tration; Clin. Chem. 50 (2004) 2157–2159. Search in Google Scholar

217. Xu, A.S., L.L. Peng, J.A. Havel, M.E. Peterson, J.A. Fiene, and J.D. Hulse: Determination of nicotine and cotinine in human plasma by liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization interface; J. Chromatogr. B. 682 (1996) 249–257. Search in Google Scholar

218. Taylor, P.J., K.K. Forrest, P.G. Landsberg, C. Mitchell, and P.I. Pillans: The measurement of nicotine in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospraytandem mass spectrometry; Ther. Drug Monit. 26 (2004) 563–568. Search in Google Scholar

219. Moyer, T.P., J.R. Charlson, R.J. Enger, L.C. Dale, J.O. Ebbert, D.R. Schroeder, and R.D. Hurt: Simultaneous analysis of nicotine, nicotine metabolites and tobacco alkaloids in serum or urine by tandem mass spectro-metry, with clinically relevant metabolic profiles; Clin. Chem. 48 (2002) 1460–1471. Search in Google Scholar

220. Xu, X., M.M. Iba, and C.P. Weisel: Simultaneous and sensitive measurement of anabasine, nicotine and nico-tine metabolites in human urine by liquid chromato-graphytandem mass spectrometry; Clin. Chem. 50 (2004) 2323–2330. Search in Google Scholar

221. Yamanaka, H., M. Nakajima, K. Nishimura, R. Yoshida, T. Fukami, M. Katoh, and T. Yokoi: Metabolic profile of nicotine in subjects whose CYP2A6 gene is deleted; Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 22 (2004) 419–425. Search in Google Scholar

222. Heavner, D.L., J.D. Richardson, W.T. Morgan, and M.W. Ogden: Validation and application of a method for the determination of nicotine and five major metabolites in smokers’ urine by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatographytandem mass spectrometry; Biomed. Chromatogr. 19 (2005) 312–328. Search in Google Scholar

223. Karnes, H.T., J.R. James, C. March, D.E. Leyden, and K. Koller: Assessment of nicotine uptake from cigarette smoke: comparison of a colorimetric test strip (Nic-Check ITM) and gas chromatography/mass selective detector; Biomarkers 6 (2001) 388–399. Search in Google Scholar

224. Gariti, P., D.I. Rosenthal, K. Lindell, J. Hansen-Fla-schen, J. Shrager, C. Lipkin, A.I. Alterman, and L.R. Kaiser: Validating a dipstick method for detecting recent smoking; Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11 (2002) 1123–1125. Search in Google Scholar

225. Parker, D.R., T.M. Lasater, R. Windsor, J. Wilkins, D.I. Upegui, and J. Heimdal: The accuracy of self-reported smoking status assessed by cotinine test strips; Nicotine Tob. Res. 4 (2002) 305–309. Search in Google Scholar

226. Berry, D.J. and J. Grove: Inproved chromatographic techniques and their interpretation for the screening of urine from drug dependent subjects; J. Chromatogr. 61 (1971) 111–116. Search in Google Scholar

227. Bazylak, G., H. Brózik, and W. Sabanty: Combined SPE and HPTLC as a screening assay of urinary cotinine from male adolescents exposed to environ-mental tobacco smoke; Polish J. Environ. Studies 9 (2000) 113–123. Search in Google Scholar

228. Palmer, M.E., R.F. Smith, K. Chamber, and L.W. Tetler: Separation of nicotine metabolites by capillary zone electrophoresis and capillary zone electropho-res/mass spectrometry; Rapid Comm. Mass Spectrom. 15 (2001) 224–231. Search in Google Scholar

229. Baidoo, E.E.K., M.R. Clench, R.F. Smith, and L.W. Tetler: Determination of nicotine and its metabolites in urine by solid-phase extraction and sample stacking capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry; J. Chromatogr. B 796 (2003) 303–313. Search in Google Scholar

230. Jarvis, M.J. and M.A.H. Russell: Passive exposure to tobacco smoke; Br. Med. J. 291 (1985) 1646. Search in Google Scholar

231. Curvall, M., E. Kazemi-Vala, J. Wahren, and C. Enzell: Concentration of cotinine body fluids as a measure of nicotine intake by nonsmokers; in: The Pharmacology of Nicotine, edited by M.J. Rand and K. Thurau, IRL Press, Oxford, 1988, pp. 32–33. Search in Google Scholar

232. Jarvis, M.J., P. Primatesta, B. Erens, C. Feyerabend, and A. Bryant: Measuring nicotine intake in population sur-veys: comparability of saliva cotinine and plasma coti-nine estimates; Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003) 349–355. Search in Google Scholar

233. Wewers, M.E., K.L. Ahijevych, R.K. Dhatt, R.M. Guthrie, P. Kuun, L. Mitchell, M.L. Moeschberger, and M.S. Chen Jr.: Cotinine levels in Southeast Asian smokers; Nicotine Tob. Res. 2 (2000) 85–91. Search in Google Scholar

234. Jarvis, M., H. Tunstall-Pedoe, C. Feyerabend, C. Vesey, and Y. Salloojee: Biochemical markers of smoke absorption and self reported exposure to passive smoking; J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health 38 (1984) 335–339. Search in Google Scholar

235. Jarvis, M.J., M.A.H. Russell, N.L. Benowitz, and C. Feyerabend: Elimination of cotinine from body fluids: implications for noninvasive measurement of tobacco smoke exposure; Am. J. Public Health 78 (1988) 696–698. Search in Google Scholar

236. Wall, M.A., J. Johnson, P. Jacob, and N.L. Benowitz: Cotinine in the serum, saliva and urine of nonsmokers, passive smokers and active smokers; Am. J. Public Health 78 (1988) 699–701. Search in Google Scholar

237. Coultas, D.B., J.M. Samet, J.F. McCarthy, and J.D. Spengler: Variability of measures of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in the home; Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 142 (1990) 602–606. Search in Google Scholar

238. Berlin, I., A. Radzius, J.E. Henningfield, and E.T. Moolchan: Correlates of expired air carbon monoxide: effect of ethnicity and relationship with saliva cotinine and nicotine; Nicotine Tob. Res. 3 (2001) 325–331. Search in Google Scholar

239. Dolcini, M.M., N.E. Adler, P. Lee, and K.E. Bauman: An assessment of the validity of adolescent self-reported smoking status using three biological markers; Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003) 473–383. Search in Google Scholar

240. Stookey, G.K., B.P. Katz, B.L. Olsen, C.A. Drook, and S.J. Cohen: Evaluation of biochemical validation measures in determination of smoking status; J. Dent. Res. 66 (1987) 1597–1601. Search in Google Scholar

241. Metz, C.E.: Basic principles of ROC analysis. Seminars Nuclear Med. 8 (1978) 283–298. Search in Google Scholar

242. Cummings, S.R. and R.J. Richard: Optimum cutoff points for biochemical validation of smoking status; Am. J. Public Health 78 (1988) 574–575. Search in Google Scholar

243. Wagenknecht, L.E., G.L. Burke, L.L. Perkins, N.J. Haley, and G.D. Friedman: Misclassification of smoking status in the CARDIA study: a comparison of self-report with serum cotinine levels; Am. J. Public Health 82 (1992) 33–36. Search in Google Scholar

244. Caraballo, R.S., G.A. Giovino; and T.F. Pechacek: Self-reported cigarette smoking vs. serum cotinine among U.S. adolescents; Nicotine Tob. Res. 6 (2004) 19–25. Search in Google Scholar

245. McNeill, A.D., M.J. Jarvis, R. West, M.A.H. Russell, and A. Bryant: Saliva cotinine as an indicator of cigarette smoking in adolescents; Br. J. Addict. 82 (1987) 1355–1360. Search in Google Scholar

246. Wagenknecht, L.E., G.R. Cutter, N.J. Haley, S. Sidney, T.A. Manolio, G.H. Hughes, and D.R. Jacob: Racial differences in serum cotinine levels among smokers in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in (Young) Adults Study; Am. J. Public Health 80 (1990) 1053–1056. Search in Google Scholar

247. English, P.B., B. Eskenazi, and R.E. Christianson: Black-white differences in serum cotinine levels among pregnant women and subsequent effects on infant birthweight; Am. J. Public Health 84 (1994) 1439–1443. Search in Google Scholar

248. Pérez-Stable, E.J., G. Marín, B.V. Marín, and N.L. Benowitz: Misclassification of smoking status by self-reported cigarette consumption; Am. Rev. Resp. Dis. 145 (1992) 53–57. Search in Google Scholar

249. Caraballo, R.S., G.A. Giovino, T.F. Pechacek, and P.D. Mowery: Factors associated with discrepancies between self-reports on cigarette smoking and measured serum cotinine levels among persons aged 17 years or older; Am. J. Epidemiol. 153 (2001) 807–814. Search in Google Scholar

250. Owen, L. and A. McNeill: Saliva cotinine as indicator of cigarette smoking in pregnant women; Addiction 96 (2001) 1001–1006. Search in Google Scholar

251. Jacob, P., III., L. Yu, A.T. Shulgin, and N.L. Benowitz: Minor tobacco alkaloids as biomarkers for tobacco use: comparison of users of cigarette, smokeless tobacco, cigar and pipes; Am. J. Public Health 89 (1999) 731–736. Search in Google Scholar

252. Jacob, P., III., D. Hatsukami, H. Severson, S. Hall, L. Yu, and N.L. Benowitz: Anabasine and anatabine as biomarkers for tobacco use during nicotine replacement therapy; Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarker Prev. 11 (2002) 1668–1673. Search in Google Scholar

253. Feyerabend, C. and M.A.H. Russell: Effect of urinary pH and nicotine excretion rate on plasma nicotine during cigarette smoking and chewing nicotine gum; Br. J. clin. Pharmac. 5 (1978) 293–297. Search in Google Scholar

254. Benowitz, N.L., P. Jacob, III., R.T. Jones, and J. Rosenberg: Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of nicotine in man; J. Phar-macol. Exp. Ther. 221 (1982) 368–372. Search in Google Scholar

255. Benowitz, N.L., F. Kuyt, P. Jacob, III., R.T. Jones, and A.-L. Osman: Cotinine disposition and effects; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 34 (1983) 604–611.10.1038/clpt.1983.2226627820 Search in Google Scholar

256. Isaac, P.F. and M.J. Rand, Cigarette smoking and plasma levels of nicotine; Nature 236 (1972) 308–310. Search in Google Scholar

257. Foulds, J., A. Bryant, J. Stapleton, M.J. Jarvis, and M.A.H. Russell: The stability of cotinine in unfrozen saliva mailed to the laboratory; Am. J. Public Health 81 (1994) 1182–1183. Search in Google Scholar

258. Vartiainen, E., T. Seppälä, P. Lillsunde, and P. Puska: Validation of self reported smoking by serum cotinine measurement in a community-based study; J. Epide-miol. Community Health 56 (2000) 167–170. Search in Google Scholar

259. Pérez-Stable, E.J., N.L. Benowitz, and G. Marín: Is serum cotinine a better measure of cigarette smoking than self-report?; Prev. Med. 24 (1995) 171–179. Search in Google Scholar

260. Benowitz, N.L. and D.S. Sharp: Inverse relation between serum cotinine concentration and blood pressure in cigarette smokers; Circulation 80 (1989) 1309–1312. Search in Google Scholar

261. Caraballo, R.S., G.A. Giovino, T.F. Pechacek, P.D. Mowery, P.A. Richter, W.J. Strauss, D.J. Sharp, M.P. Eriksen, J.L. Pirkle, and K.R. Maurer: Racial and ethnic differences in serum cotinine levels of cigarette smokers; JAMA 280 (1998) 135–139. Search in Google Scholar

262. Wagenknecht, L.E., T.A. Manolio, S. Sidney, G.L. Burke, and N.J. Haley: Environmental tobacco smoke exposure as determined by cotinine in black and white young adults: the CARDIA Study; Environ. Res. 63 (1993) 39–46. Search in Google Scholar

263. Crawford, F.G., J. Mayer, R.M. Santella, T.B. Cooper, R. Ottman, W.Y. Tsai, G. Simon-Cereijido, M. Wang, D. Tang, and F.P. Perera: Biomarkers of environmental tobacco smoke in pre-school children and their mothers; J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 86 (1994) 1398–1402. Search in Google Scholar

264. Pirkle, J.L., K.M. Flegal, J.T. Bernert, D.J. Brody, R.A. Etzel, and K.R. Maurer: Exposure of the US population to environmental tobacco smoke. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988 to 1991; JAMA 275 (1996) 1233–1240. Search in Google Scholar

265. Jarvis, M.J., C. Feyerabend, A. Bryant, B. Hedges, and P. Primatesta: Passive smoking in the home: plasma cotinine concentrations in non-smokers with smoking partners; Tobacco Control 10 (2001) 368–374. Search in Google Scholar

266. Kaufman, F.L., M. Kharrazi, G.N. DeLorenze, B. Eskenazi, and J.T. Bernert: Estimation of environ-mental tobacco smoke exposure during pregnancy using a single question on household smokers verses serum cotinine; J. Exp. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 12 (2002) 286–295. Search in Google Scholar

267. Pattishall, E.N., G.L. Strope, R.A. Etzel, R.W. Helms, N.J. Haley, and F.W. Denny: Serum cotinine as a measure of tobacco smoke exposure in children; Am. J. Dis. Child. 139 (1985) 1101–1104. Search in Google Scholar

268. Mannino, D.M., R. Caraballo, N. Benowitz, and J. Repace: Predictors of cotinine levels in US children. Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; Chest 120 (2001) 718–724. Search in Google Scholar

269. Mercelina-Roumans, P.E.A.M., H. Schouten, J.M.H. Ubachs, and J.W.J. van Wersch: Cotinine concen-trations in plasma of smoking pregnant women and their infants; Eur. J. Clin. Chem. Biochem. 34 (1996) 525–528. Search in Google Scholar

270. Pichini, S., X. Basagana, R. Pacifici, O. Garcia, C. Puig, O. Vall, J. Harris, P. Zuccaro, J. Segura, and J. Sunyer: Cord serum cotinine as a biomarker of fetal exposure to cigarette smoke at the end of pregnancy; Env. Health Perspect. 108 (2000) 1079–1083. Search in Google Scholar

271. Pojer, R., J.B. Whitfield, V. Poulos, I.F. Eckhard, R. Richmond, and W.J. Hensley: Carboxyhemoglobin, cotinine and thiocyanate assay compared for distinguishing smokers from non-smokers; Clin. Chem. 30 (1984) 1377–1380. Search in Google Scholar

272. de Leon, J., F.J. Diaz, T. Rogers, D. Browne, L. Dinsmore, O.H. Gosheh, L.P. Dwoskin, and P.A. Crooks: Plasma cotinine 3’-hydroxycotinine and their glucuronides in white and black smokers; J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 23 (2003) 209–211. Search in Google Scholar

273. Galeazzi, R.L., P. Daenens, and M. Gugger: Steady-state concentration of cotinine as a measure of nicotine-intake by smokers; Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 28 (1985) 301–304. Search in Google Scholar

274. Ashton, H., R. Stepney, and J.W. Thompson: Self-titration by cigarette smokers; Br. Med. J. 2 (1979) 357–360. Search in Google Scholar

275. Zacny, J.P., M.L. Stitzer, F.J. Brown, J.E. Yingling, and R.R. Griffiths: Human cigarette smoking: effects of puff and inhalation parameters on smoke exposure; J. Pharmacol. Expt. Ther. 240 (1987) 554–564. Search in Google Scholar

276. Hatsumaki, D.K., R.W. Pickens, D.S. Svikis, and J.R. Hughes: Smoking topography and nicotine blood levels; Addict. Behav. 13 (1988) 91–95. Search in Google Scholar

277. Höfer, I., R. Nil, and K. Bättig: Nicotine yield as determinant of smoke exposure indicators and puffing behavior; Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 40 (1991) 139–149. Search in Google Scholar

278. Patterson, F., N. Benowitz, P. Shields, V. Kaufmann, C. Jepson, P. Wileyto, S. Kucharski, and C. Lerman: Indi-vidual differences in nicotine intake per cigarette; Can-cer Epidemiol; Biomarkers Prev. 12 (2003) 468–471. Search in Google Scholar

279. Malson, J.L., E.M. Lee, R. Murty, E.T. Moolchan, and W.B. Pickworth: Clove cigarette smoking: biochemical, physiological and subjective effects; Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 74 (2003) 739–745. Search in Google Scholar

280. Baker, R.R. and M. Dixon: The retention of tobacco smoke constituents in the human respiratory tract; Inhalation Toxicol. 17 (2006) 1–39. Search in Google Scholar

281. Olivieri, M., A. Poli, P. Zuccaro, M. Ferrari, G. Lampronti, R. de Marco, V.L. Cascio, and R. Pacifici: Tobacco smoke exposure and serum cotinine in a random sample of adults living in Verona, Italy; Arch. Environ. Health 57 (2002) 355–359. Search in Google Scholar

282. Rosa, M., R. Pacifici, I. Altieri, S. Pichini, G. Ottaviani, and P. Zuccaro: How the steady-state cotinine concen-tration in cigarette smokers is directly related to nico-tine intake; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 52 (1992) 324–329. Search in Google Scholar

283. SRNT Subcommittee on Biochemical Verification: Biochemical verification of tobacco use and cessation; Nicotine Tob. Res. 4 (2002) 149–159.10.1080/1462220021012358112028847 Search in Google Scholar

284. US Public Health Service: Healthy People 2010: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives [full report, with commentary]; Department of Health and Human Services, Washington DC, 2000. Search in Google Scholar

285. Assaf, A.R., D. Parker, K.L. Lapane, J.L. McKenney, and R.A. Carleton: Are gender differences in self-reported smoking practices? Correlation with thio-cyanate and cotinine levels in smokers and nonsmokers from the Pawtucket Heart Health Program; J. Women's Health 11 (2002) 899–906. Search in Google Scholar

286. A Report of the Surgeon General: Tobacco Use Among U.S. Racial/Ethnic Minoroty Groups – African Ameri-cans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders and Hispanics; Rock-ville, Maryland, US Department of Health and Human Services, 1989. Search in Google Scholar

287. de Leon, J., F.J. Diaz, T. Rogers, D. Browne, L. Dins-more, O.H. Gosheh, L.P. Dwoskin, and P.A. Crooks: Total cotinine in plasma: a stable biomarker for expo-sure to tobacco smoke; J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 22 (2002) 496–501. Search in Google Scholar

288. Lambers, D.S. and K.E. Clark: The maternal and fetal physiologic effects of nicotine; Semin. Perinatol. 20 (1996) 115–126. Search in Google Scholar

289. Bearer, C., R.K. Emerson, M.A. O'Riordan, E. Roit-man, and C. Shackleton: Maternal tobacco smoke expo-sure and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the new-born; Environ. Health Perspect. 105 (1997) 202–206. Search in Google Scholar

290. Benowitz, N.L.: Biomarkers of environmental tobacco smoke exposure; Environ. Health Perspect. 107 (1999) 349–355. Search in Google Scholar

291. Feyerabend, C., T. Higenbottam, and M.A.H. Russell: Nicotine concentrations in urine and saliva of smokers and non-smokers; Br. Med. J. 284 (1982) 1002–1004. Search in Google Scholar

292. Abrams, D.B., M.J. Follick, L. Biener, K.B. Carey, and J. Hitti: Saliva cotinine as a measure of smoking status in field settings; Am. J. Public Health 77 (1987) 846–848. Search in Google Scholar

293. Lee, P.N.: Lung cancer and passive smoking: asso-ciation an artefact due to missclasification of smoking habits?; Toxicol. Lett. 35 (1987) 157–162. Search in Google Scholar

294. Etter, J.-F., T.V. Perneger, and A. Ronchi: Collecting saliva samples by mail; Am. J. Epidemiol. 147 (1998) 141–146. Search in Google Scholar

295. Etter, J.-F., T. Vu Duc, and T.V. Perneger: Saliva cotinine levels in smokers and nonsmokers; Am. J. Epidemiol. 151 (2000) 251–258. Search in Google Scholar

296. Schneider, N.G., P. Jacob III., F. Nilsson, S.J. Leischow, N.L. Benowitz, and R.E. Olmstead: Saliva cotinine levels as a function of collection method; Addiction 92 (1997) 347–351. Search in Google Scholar

297. Feyerabend, C. and M.A.H. Russell: A rapid gas-liquid chromatographic method for the determination of cotinine and nicotine in biological fluids; J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 42 (1990) 450–452. Search in Google Scholar

298. Delifino, R.J., P. Ernst, M.S. Jaakkola, S. Solomon, and M.R. Becklake: Questionnaire assessments of recent exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in relation to salivary cotinine; Eur. Respir. J. 6 (1993) 1104–1108. Search in Google Scholar

299. Jarvis, M.J., E. Goddard, V. Higgins, C. Feyerabend, A. Bryant, and D.G. Cook: Children's exposure to passive smoking in England since the 1980s: cotinine evidence from population surveys; Br. Med. J. 321 (2000) 343–345. Search in Google Scholar

300. Pierce, J.P., T. Dwyer, E. DiGiusto, T. Carpenter, C. Hannam, A. Amin, C. Yong, G. Sarfaty, J. Shaw, and N. Burke: Cotinine validation of self-reported smoking in commercially run community surveys; J. Chronic Dis. 40 (1987) 689–695. Search in Google Scholar

301. Etzel, R.A.: A review of the use of saliva cotinine as a marker of tobacco smoke exposure; Prev. Med. 19 (1990) 190–197. Search in Google Scholar

302. Cummings, K.M., S.J. Markello, M. Mahoney, A.K. Bhargava, P.D. McElroy, and J.R. Marshall: Measure-ment of current exposure to environmental tobacco smoke; Arch. Environ. Health 45 (1990) 74–79. Search in Google Scholar

303. Beckett, A.H., M. Rowland, and E.J. Triggs: Significance of smoking in investigations of urinary excretion rates of amines in man; Nature 207 (1965) 200–201. Search in Google Scholar

304. Labrecque, M., S. Marcoux, J.-P. Weber, J. Fabia, and L. Ferron: Feeding and urine cotinine values in babies whose mothers smoke; Pediatrics 83 (1989) 93–97. Search in Google Scholar

305. Thompson, S.G., R.D. Barlow, N.J. Wald, and H. Van Vunakis: How should urinary cotinine concentrations be adjusted for urinary creatinine concentration? Clin. Chim. Acta 187 (1990) 289–295. Search in Google Scholar

306. Dahlström, A., B. Lundell, M. Curvall, and L. Thapper: Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in the nursing mother and her infant; Acta Paediatr. Scand. 79 (1990) 142–147. Search in Google Scholar

307. Köhler, E., D. Bretschneider, A. Rabsilber, W. Weise, and G. Jorch: Assessment of prenatal smoke exposure by determining nicotine and its metabolites in maternal and neonatal urine; Human Exp. Toxicol. 20 (2001) 1–7. Search in Google Scholar

308. Cornelius, M.D., L. Goldschmidt, and D.A. Dempsey: Environmental tobacco smoke exposure in low-income 6-year-olds: Parent report and urine cotinine measures; Nicotine Tob. Res. 5 (2003) 333–339. Search in Google Scholar

309. Haddow, J.E., G.J. Knight, G.E. Palomaki, L.M. Neveux, and B.A. Chilmonczyk: Replacing creatinine measurements with specific gravity values to adjust urine cotinine concentrations; Clin. Chem. 40 (1994) 562–564. Search in Google Scholar

310. Heavner, D.L., W.T. Morgan, S.B. Sears, J.D. Richardson, G.D. Byrd, and M.W. Ogden: Effect of cre-atinine and specific agravity normalization techniques on xenobiotic biomarkers in smokers’ spot and 24-h urines; J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 40 (2006) 928–942. Search in Google Scholar

311. Jatlow, P., S. McKee, and S.S. O'Malley: Correction of urine cotinine concentrations for creatinine excretion: is it useful? Clin. Chem. 49 (2003) 1932–1934. Search in Google Scholar

312. Luck, W. and H. Nau: Nicotine and cotinine concen-trations in serum and milk of nursing smokers; Br. J. clin. Pharmac. 18 (1984) 9–15. Search in Google Scholar

313. Hagan, R.L., J.M. Ramos Jr., and P.M. Jacob III.: Increasing urinary cotinine concentrations at elevated temperatures: the role of conjugated metabolites; J. Pharmaceutical Biomedical Anal. 16 (1997) 191–197. Search in Google Scholar

314. Riboli, E., N.J. Haley., F. De Waard, and R. Saracci: Validity of urinary biomarkers of exposure to tobacco smoke following prolonged storage; Int. J. Epidemiol. 24 (1995) 354–358. Search in Google Scholar

315. Jacqz-Aigrain, E., D. Zhang, G. Maillard, D. Luton, J. André, and J.F. Oury: Maternal smoking during preg-nancy and nicotine and cotinine concentrations in maternal and neonatal hair; Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 109 (2002) 909–911. Search in Google Scholar

316. Riboli, E., N.J. Haley., J. Trédaniel, R. Saracci, S. Preston-Martin, and D. Trichopoulos: Misclassification of smoking status among women in relation to exposure to environmental tobacco smoke; Eur. Respir. J. 8 (1995) 285–290. Search in Google Scholar

317. Nafstad, P., G. Botten, J.A. Hagen, K. Zahlsen, O.G., Nilsen, T. Silsand, and J. Kongerud: Comparison of three methods for estimating environmental tobacco smoke exposure among children aged between 12 and 36 months; Int. J. Epidemiol. 24 (1995) 88–94. Search in Google Scholar

318. Matt, G.E., D.R. Wahlgren, M.F. Hovell, J.M. Zakarian, J.T. Bernert, S.B. Meltzer, J.L. Pirkle, and S. Caudill: Measuring environmental tobacco smoke exposure in infants and young children through urine cotinine and memory-based parental reports: empirical findings and discussion; Tobacco Control 8 (1999) 282–289. Search in Google Scholar

319. Luck, W. and H. Nau: Nicotine and cotinine concentrations in serum and urine of infants exposed via passive smoking or milk from smoking mothers; J. Pediatr. 107 (1985) 816–820. Search in Google Scholar

320. Woodward, A., N. Grgurinovich, and P. Ryan: Breast feeding and smoking hygiene: major influences on cotinine in urine of smokers’ infants; J. Epidemiol. Community Health 40 (1986) 309–315. Search in Google Scholar

321. Thompson, S.G., R. Stone, K. Nanchahal, and N.J. Wald: Relation of urinary cotinine concentrations to cigarette smoking and to exposure to other people's smoke; Thorax 45 (1990) 356–361. Search in Google Scholar

322. Boswell, C., M. Curvall, R.K. Elswick Jr. and D. Leyden: Modelling nicotine intake in smokers and snuff users using biological fluid nicotine metabolites; Biomarkers 5 (2000) 341–354. Search in Google Scholar

323. Schepers, G. and D. Demetriou: Determination of nicotine and its metabolites in urine by HPLC after DETBA derivatization; 8th Annual Society for Research and Tobacco Conference 20–23rd February 2002, Savannah, Georgia, US. Search in Google Scholar

324. Schulte-Hobein, B., D. Schwartz-Bickenbach, S. Abt, C. Plum, and H. Nau: Cigarette smoke exposure and development of infants throughout the first year of life: influence of passive smoking and nursing on cotinine levels in breast milk and infant's urine; Acta Paediatr. 81 (1992) 550–557. Search in Google Scholar

325. Schwartz-Bickenbach, D., B. Schulte-Hobein, S. Abt, C. Plum, and H. Nau: Smoking and passive smoking during pregnancy and early infancy: effects on birth weight, lactation period and cotinine concentrations in mother's milk and infant's urine; Toxicol. Lett. 35 (1987) 73–81. Search in Google Scholar

326. Kintz, P. and P. Mangin: Determination of gestational opiate, nicotine, benzodiazepine, cocaine and ampheta-mine exposure by hair analysis; J. Forensic Sci. Soc. 33 (1993) 139–142. Search in Google Scholar

327. Uematsu, T.: Therapeutic drug monitoring in hair samples; Clin. Pharmacokinet. 25 (1993) 83–87. Search in Google Scholar

328. Al-Delaimy, W.K.: Hair as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke; Tobacco Control 11 (2002) 176–182. Search in Google Scholar

329. Pichini, S., I. Altieri, M. Pellegrini, R. Pacifici, and P. Zuccaro: Hair analysis for nicotine and cotinine: evaluation of extraction procedures, hair treatments and development of reference material; Forensic Sci. Int. 84 (1997) 243–252. Search in Google Scholar

330. Kintz, P.: Gas chromatographic analysis of nicotine and cotinine in hair; J. Chrom. 580 (1992) 347–353. Search in Google Scholar

331. Mizuno, A., T. Uematsu, A. Oshima, M. Nakamura, and M. Nakashima: Analysis of nicotine content of hair for assessing individual cigarette-smoking behaviour; Ther. Drug Monit. 15 (1993) 99–104. Search in Google Scholar

332. Nilsen, T. and O.G. Nilsen: Accumulation of nicotine in human hair during long-term controlled exposure to a low concentration of nicotine vapour; Pharmacol. Toxicol. 81 (1997) 48–52. Search in Google Scholar

333. Zahlsen, K. and O.G. Nilsen: Gas chromatographic analysis of nicotine in hair; Environ. Technol. 11 (1990) 353–364. Search in Google Scholar

334. Dimish-Ward, H., H. Gee, M. Brauer, and V. Leung: Analysis of nicotine and cotinine in the hair of hospitality workers exposed to environmental tobacco smoke; J. Occ. Environ. Med. 39 (1997) 946–948. Search in Google Scholar

335. Gerstenberg, B., G. Schepers, P. Voncken, and H. Völkel: Nicotine and cotinine accumulation in pigmented and unpigmented rat hair; Drug Metab. Dispos. 23 (1995) 143–148. Search in Google Scholar

336. Dehn, D.L., D.J. Claffey, M.W. Duncan, and J.A. Ruth: Nicotine and cotinine adducts of a melanin intermediate demonstrated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ioni-zation time-of-flight mas spectrometry; Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14 (2001) 275–279. Search in Google Scholar

337. C. Eliopoulos, J. Klein, and G. Koren: Validation of self-reported smoking by analysis of hair for nicotine and cotinine; Ther. Drug Monitor. 18 (1996) 532–536. Search in Google Scholar

338. Uematsu, T., A. Mizuno, S. Nagashima, A. Oshima, and M. Nakamura: The axial distribution of nicotine content along hair shaft as an indicator of changes in smoking behaviour: elevation in a smoking-cessation programme with or without the aid of nicotine chewing gum; Br. J. clin. Pharmac. 39 (1995) 665–669. Search in Google Scholar

339. Pichini, S., Ó. Garcia-Algar, L. Munoz, O. Vall, R. Pacifici, C. Figueroa, J.A. Pascual, D. Diaz, and J. Sunyer: Assessment of chronic exposure to cigarette smoke and its change during pregnancy by segmental hair analysis; J. Exposure Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 13 (2003) 144–151. Search in Google Scholar

340. Feldman, Y., G. Koren, D. Mattice, H. Shear, E. Pellegrini, and S.M. MacLeod: Determinants of recall and recall bias in studying drug and chemical exposures in pregnancy; Teratology 49 (1989) 37–45. Search in Google Scholar

341. Kintz, P., B. Ludes, and P. Mangin: Evaluation of nicotine and cotinine in human hair; J. Forensic Sci. 37 (1992) 72–76. Search in Google Scholar

342. Klein, J. and G. Koren: Hair analysis – a biological marker for passive smoking in pregnancy and childhood; Human Expt. Toxicol. 18 (1999) 279–282. Search in Google Scholar

343. Hardee, G.E., T. Stewart, and A.C. Capomacchia: Tobacco smoke xenobiotic compound appearance in mother's milk and involuntary smoke exposures. I. Nicotine and cotinine; Toxicol. Lett. 15 (1983) 109–112. Search in Google Scholar

344. Luck, W. and H. Nau: Nicotine and cotinine concen-trations in the milk of smoking mothers: influence of cigarette consumption and diurnal variation; Eur. J. Pediatr. 146 (1987) 21–26. Search in Google Scholar

345. Schiffman, M.H., N.J. Haley., J.S. Felton, A.W. Andrews, R.A. Kaslow, W.D. Lancaster, R.J. Kurman, L.A. Brinton, L.B. Lannom, and D. Hoffmann: Biochemical epidemiology of cervical neoplasia: measuring cigarette smoke constituents in the cervix; Cancer Res. 44 (1987) 3886–3888. Search in Google Scholar

346. Jones, C.J., M.H. Schiffman, R. Kurman, P. Jacob III., and N.L. Benowitz: Elevated nicotine levels in cervical lavages from passive smokers; J. Publ. Health 81 (1991) 378–379. Search in Google Scholar

347. McCann, M.F., D.E. Irwin, L.A. Walton, B.S. Hulka, J.L. Morton, and C.M. Axelrad: Nicotine and cotinine in the cervical mucus of smokers, passive smokers and nonsmokers; Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 1 (1992) 125–129. Search in Google Scholar

348. Poppe, W.A., R. Peeters, P. Daenens, P.S. Ide, and F.A. Van Assche: Tobacco smoking and the uterine cervix: cotinine in blood, urine and cervical fluid; Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 39 (1995) 110–114. Search in Google Scholar

349. Vine, M.F., C.J. Tse, P. Hu, and K.Y. Truong: Cigarette smoking and semen quality; Fertil. Steril. 65 (1996) 835–842. Search in Google Scholar

350. Macaron, C.I., Z. Macaron, M.-T. Maalouf, and G. Khazaal: Cotinine in seminal fluids of smokers, passive smokers and nonsmokers; J. Med. Liban. 45 (1997) 46. Search in Google Scholar

351. Balabanova, S., G. Bühler, E. Schneider, H.J. Boschek, and H. Schneiter: Über die Ausscheidung von Nikotin mit dem apokrinen und ekkrinen Schweiß bei Rauchern und Passiv-Rauchern [Nicotine excretion by the apo-crine and eccrine sweat in smokers and passive smokers]; Hautarzt 43 (1992) 73–76. Search in Google Scholar

352. Kintz, P., A. Henrich, V. Cirimele, and B. Ludes: Nicotine monitoring in sweat with a sweat patch; J. Chromatogr. B 705 (1998) 357–361. Search in Google Scholar

353. Al-Delaimy, W.K., G.N. Mahoney, F.E. Speizer, and W.C. Willett: Toenail nicotine levels as a biomarker of tobacco smoke exposure; Cancer Epidemiol. Bio-markers & Prev. 11 (2002) 1400–1404. Search in Google Scholar

354. Garcia-Algar, Ó., O. Vall, J. Segura, J.A. Pascual, D. Diaz, L. Muñoz, P. Zuccaro, R. Pacifici, and S. Pichini: Nicotine concentrations in deciduous teeth and cumu-lative exposure to tobacco smoke during childhood; JAMA 290 (2003) 196–197. Search in Google Scholar

355. Fukami, T., M. Nakajima, R. Yoshida, Y. Tsuchiya, Y. Fujiki, M. Katoh, H.L. MeLeod, and T. Yokoi: A novel polymorphism of human CYP2A6 gene CYP2A6*17 has an amino acid substitution (V365M) that decreases enzyme activity in vitro and in vivo; Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 76 (2004) 519–527. Search in Google Scholar

356. Jarvis, M.J., C. Feyerabend, A. Bryant, B. Hedges, and P. Primatesta: Passive smoking in the home: plasma cotinine concentrations in non-smokers with smoking partners; Tobacco Control 10 (2001) 368–374. Search in Google Scholar

357. Martínez, M.E., M. Reid, R. Jiang, J. Einspahr, and D.S. Alberts: Accuracy of self-reported smoking status among participants in a chemoprevention trial; Prev. Med. 38 (2004) 492–497. Search in Google Scholar

358. Goulay, S.G., N.L. Benowitz, A. Forbes, and J.J. McNeill: Determinants of plasma concentrations of nicotine and cotinine during cigarette smoking and transdermal nicotine replacement; Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 51 (1997) 407–414. Search in Google Scholar

359. Li, C.Q., R.A. Windsor, L. Perkins, R.L. Goldenberg, and J.B. Lowe: The impact on infant birthweight and gestational age of cotinine-validated smoking reduction during pregnancy; JAMA 269 (1993) 1519–1524. Search in Google Scholar

eISSN:
2719-9509
Idioma:
Inglés
Calendario de la edición:
4 veces al año
Temas de la revista:
General Interest, Life Sciences, other, Physics