Normativity in the EU’s Approach towards Disinformation

Anansaringkarn, P. & Neo, R. (2021), ‘How can state regulations over the online sphere continue to respect the freedom of expression? A case study of contemporary ‘fake news’ regulations in Thailand,’ Information & Communications Technology Law. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2020.185778910.1080/13600834.2020.1857789 Search in Google Scholar

Andorfer, A. (2018), ‘Spreading like wildfire: solutions for abating the fake news problem on social media via technology controls and government regulation,’ Hastings Law Journal, vol. 69, no. 5, pp. 1409–1432. Search in Google Scholar

Antkowiak, T. M. (2002), ‘Truth as right and remedy in international human rights experience,’ Michigan Journal of International Law, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 977–1014. Search in Google Scholar

Aswad, E. (2020), ‘In a world of “fake news,” what’s social media platform to do?’ Utah Law Review, vol. 2020, no. 4, pp. 1009–1028. Search in Google Scholar

Baade, B. (2019), ‘Fake news and international law,’ The European Journal of International Law, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 1357–1376. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chy07110.1093/ejil/chy071 Search in Google Scholar

Baranowska, G. & Glisczczynska-Grabias, A. (2018), ‘Right to truth and memory laws: general rules and practical implications,’ Polish Political Science Yearbook, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 97–109. https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy201810710.15804/ppsy2018107 Search in Google Scholar

Boring, N. (2019), ‘Initiatives to counter fake news: France.’ Library of Congress Law. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/law/help/fake-news/france.php [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Carrapico, H. & Farrand, B. (2021), ‘When trust fades, Facebook is no longer a friend: shifting privatisation dynamics in the context of cybersecurity as a result of disinformation, populism and political uncertainty,’ Journal of Common Market Studies. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcms.1317510.1111/jcms.13175 Search in Google Scholar

Carson, A. & Fallon, L. (2021), ‘Fighting fake news: a study of online misinformation regulation in the Asia Pacific,’ Report, La Trobe University. https://doi.org/10.26181/60640ea43558f Search in Google Scholar

Civicus (2017), ‘“Fake news” violates citizens’ right to be informed.’ Retrieved from https://www.civicus.org/index.php/fr/medias-ressources/112-news/2757-fake-news-violates-citizens-right-to-be-informed [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions On the European Democracy Action Plan, COM/2020/790 final, 3.12.2020. Search in Google Scholar

Cuyvers, A. (2017), ‘Free movement of goods in the EU,’ in E. Ugirashebuja, J. E. Ruhangisa, T. Ottervanger & A. Cuyvers (eds.) East African Community Law Book: Institutional, Substantive and Comparative EU Aspects, Leiden Boston: Brill Nijhoff, pp. 326–344. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004322073_02110.1163/9789004322073_021 Search in Google Scholar

de Cock Buning, M. (2018), ‘A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: Report of the independent High Level Group on fake news and online disinformation.’ Retrieved from http://diana-n.iue.it:8080/bitstream/handle/1814/70297/DeCockB_2018?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [accessed 21 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Directive 2006/114/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 concerning misleading and comparative advertising (codified version) (Text with EEA relevance), OJ L 376, 27.12.2006. Search in Google Scholar

Dittrich, P. J. (2019), ‘Tackling the spread of disinformation. Why a co-regulatory approach is the right way forward for the EU,’ Bertelsmann Stiftung Policy Paper, 12 December. Search in Google Scholar

Douek, E. (2019), ‘Facebook’s Oversight Board: move fast with stable infrastructure and humility,’ North Carolina Journal of Law & Technology, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 1–78. Search in Google Scholar

Durach, F.; Bargaoanu, A. & Nastasiu, C. (2020), ‘Tackling disinformation: EU Regulation of the Digital Space,’ Romanian Journal of European Affairs, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 5–20. Search in Google Scholar

Edson, C. T. Jr.; Zheng, W. L. & Ling, R. (2018), ‘Defining “fake news”,’ Digital Journalism, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.136014310.1080/21670811.2017.1360143 Search in Google Scholar

Elvinger Hoss Prussen (2021), ‘European Union: focus on European Commission’s proposal for a Digital Services Act,’ Mondaq, 2 March. Retrieved from https://www.mondaq.com/media/1041478/focus-on-european-commission39s-proposal-for-a-digital-services-act [accessed 13 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

European Commission (2018), EU Code of Practice on Disinformation, Brussels. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=54454 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

European Commission (2019), Code of Practice on Disinformation. First Annual Reports – October 2019, Brussels. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=62698 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

European Commission (2020a), Coronavirus: EU strengthens action to tackle disinformation [Press release], 10 June. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_20_1006/IP_20_1006_EN.pdf [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

European Commission (2020b), European Democracy Action Plan: making EU democracies stronger [Press release], 3 December. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2250 [accessed 24 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

European Commission (2021), Europe fit for the Digital Age: new online rules for platforms. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-services-act-ensuring-safe-and-accountable-online-environment/europe-fit-digital-age-new-online-rules-platforms_en [accessed 20 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Facebook, Inc. (2019), Facebook report on the implementation of the Code of Practice for Disinformation, European Commission. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=62681 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Facebook, Inc. (2020), Facebook response to the European Commission Communication on Covid-19 Disinformation, European Commission. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=69158 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Fink, U. & Gillich, I. (2020), ‘Fake news as a challenge for journalistic standards in modern democracy,’ University of Louisville Law Review, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 263–282. Search in Google Scholar

Francis, C. (2018), ‘Trial of truth: law and fake news,’ Edinburgh Student Law Review, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 100–113. Search in Google Scholar

Gelfert, A. (2018), ‘Fake news: a definition,’ Informal Logic, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 84–117. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i1.506810.22329/il.v38i1.5068 Search in Google Scholar

Gesley, J. (2019), ‘Initiatives to counter fake news: Germany.’ Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/law/help/fake-news/germany.php [accessed 3 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Goldberg, D. (2018), ‘Responding to fake news: is there an alternative to law and regulation,’ Southwestern Law Review, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 417–448. Search in Google Scholar

Haiden, L. & Althuis, J. (2018), ‘The definition challenges of fake news,’ King’s Centre for Strategic Communications, Department of War Studies, King’s College London. Search in Google Scholar

Info Ops Polska Foundation (2020), ‘A short review of the infosphere-based information and psychological operations targeting relations between Poland and Ukraine.’ Retrieved from https://informnapalm.org/en/psychological-operations-targeting-relations-between-poland-and-ukraine/ [accessed 3 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Joint Declaration (2017), Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda, OSCE, FOM.GAL/3/17, 3.3.2017. Retrieved from https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/6/8/302796.pdf [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Kalsnes, B. (2018), ‘Fake news,’ Oxford Encyclopedia of Communication. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.80910.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.809 Search in Google Scholar

Keane, D. (2007), ‘Attacking hate speech under Article 17 of the European Convention on Human Rights,’ Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 641–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/01693441070250040410.1177/016934410702500404 Search in Google Scholar

Klonick, K. (2020), ‘The Facebook Oversight Board: creating an independent institution to adjudicate online free expression,’ Yale Law Journal, vol. 129, no. 8, pp. 2418–2499. Search in Google Scholar

Mastroianni, R. (2019), ‘Fake news, free speech and democracy: (bad) lesson from Italy,’ Southwestern Journal of International Law, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 42–74. Search in Google Scholar

Mazur, J. (2018), ‘Right to access information as collective-based approach to the GDPR’s right to explanation in European law,’ Erasmus Law Review, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 178–189. https://doi.org/10.5553/ELR.00011610.5553/ELR.000116 Search in Google Scholar

Meneghetti, A. & Anderson, C. (2021), ‘What implications does the EU’s proposed Digital Services Act have for the UK?’ RadcliffesLeBrasseur LLP, 1 March. Retrieved from https://www.rlb-law.com/briefings/corporate/what-implications-does-the-eus-proposed-digital-services-package-have-for-the-uk/ [accessed 11 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Murray, A. (2016), ‘US election: Fake news becomes the news,’ BBC, 7 November. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-37896753 [accessed 3 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Nenadić, I. (2019), ‘Unpacking the “European approach” to tackling challenges of disinformation and political manipulation,’ Internet Policy Review, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 1–22. https://doi.org/10.14763/2019.4.143610.14763/2019.4.1436 Search in Google Scholar

Nunez, F. (2020), ‘Disinformation legislation and freedom of expression,’ UC Irvine Law Review, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 783–[viii]. Search in Google Scholar

Oversight Board (2021), ‘Oversight Board overturns Facebook decision: Case 2020-006-FB-FBR.’ Retrieved from https://oversightboard.com/news/325131635492891-oversight-board-overturns-facebook-decision-case-2020-006-fb-fbr/ [accessed 10 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Pamment, J. (2020), ‘The EU’s role in fighting disinformation: taking back the initiative,’ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved from https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Pamment_-_Future_Threats.pdf [accessed 23 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Pepp, J.; Michaelson, E. & Sterken, R. (2019), ‘What’s new about fake news,’ Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 67–94. https://doi.org/10.26556/jesp.v16i2.62910.26556/jesp.v16i2.629 Search in Google Scholar

Pielemeier, J. (2020), ‘Disentangling disinformation: what makes regulating disinformation so difficult?’ Utah Law Review, vol. 2020, no. 4, pp. 917–940. Search in Google Scholar

Plasilova, I.; Hill, J.; Carlberg, M.; Goubet, M. & Procee, R. (2020), Study for the “Assessment of the Implementation of the Code of Practice on Disinformation”, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=66649 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Pollicino, O. & Bietti, E. (2019), ‘Truth and deception across the Atlantic: a roadmap of disinformation in the US and Europe,’ Italian Journal of Public Law, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 43–85. Search in Google Scholar

Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market For Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and amending Directive 2000/31/EC, COM/2020/825 final, 15.12.2020. Search in Google Scholar

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8.6.1977. Search in Google Scholar

Read, S. (2020), ‘Fraud: Banks reveal the 10 coronavirus scams to be wary of,’ BBC, 29 July. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-53573408 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Rolke, A.; Rath, H. & Backmann, J. (2019), ‘Digital tools and the right to know,’ International Chemical Regulatory and Law Review, vol. 2019, no. 4, pp. 171–178. https://doi.org/10.21552/icrl/2019/4/810.21552/icrl/2019/4/8 Search in Google Scholar

Saurwein, F. & Spencer-Smith, C. (2020), ‘Combating disinformation on social media: multilevel governance and distributed accountability in Europe,’ Digital Journalism, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 820–841. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.176540110.1080/21670811.2020.1765401 Search in Google Scholar

Shackelford, S. J.; Raymond, A.; Stemler, A. & Loyle, C. (2020), ‘Defending democracy: taking stock of the global fight against digital repression, disinformation, and election insecurity,’ Washington and Lee Law Review, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1747–1810. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.354867010.2139/ssrn.3548670 Search in Google Scholar

Shattock, E. (2020), ‘Is it time for Europe to reassess internet intermediary liability in light of coronavirus misinformation?’ European Law Blog, 20 April. Retrieved from https://europeanlawblog.eu/2020/04/20/is-it-time-for-europe-to-reassess-internet-intermediary-liability-in-light-of-coronavirus-misinformation/ [accessed 10 Apr 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Shu, K.; Sliva, A.; Wang, S.; Tang, J. & Liu, H. (2017), ‘Fake news detection on social media: a data mining perspective,’ SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1145/3137597.313760010.1145/3137597.3137600 Search in Google Scholar

Sugow, A. (2019), ‘The right to be wrong: examining the (Im) possibilities of regulating fake news while preserving the freedom of expression in Kenya,’ Strathmore Law Review, vol. 4, pp. 19–46.10.52907/slr.v4i1.108 Search in Google Scholar

Swiatkowska, J. (2017), ‘Cybersecurity statecraft in Europe: a case study of Poland,’ Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1353/gia.2017.004010.1353/gia.2017.0040 Search in Google Scholar

Twitter, Inc. (2019), Twitter Progress Report: Code of Practice against Disinformation, European Commission. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=62682 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Twitter, Inc. (2020), Twitter Report: Staying safe and informed on Twitter during COVID-19, European Commission. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/dae/document.cfm?doc_id=69160 [accessed 10 Feb 2021] Search in Google Scholar

Vaque, L. (2018), ‘Fake news in the food sector: consumer distrust and unfair competition,’ European Food and Feed Law Review (EFFL), vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 411–420. Search in Google Scholar

Vojak, B. (2017), ‘Fake news: the commoditization of internet speech,’ California Western International Law Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 123–158. Search in Google Scholar

Waldman, A. (2018), ‘The marketplace of fake news,’ University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 845–870. Search in Google Scholar

Wheeler, M. (1994), ‘The right to know in the European Union,’ Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9388.1994.tb00146.x10.1111/j.1467-9388.1994.tb00146.x Search in Google Scholar

Yilma, K. (2017), ‘Fake news and its discontent in Ethiopia,’ Mekelle University Law Journal, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 98–114. Search in Google Scholar