Hormonal |
Testosterone ↓ |
(24, 33, 35) |
Testosterone ↓ Oestradiol↓ Aromatase ↓ Gonadotropins↑ Aromatase↑ Leptin↑ |
(38, 39, 42, 43, 46, 47, 58, 115, 116, 119, 120) |
Sperm |
Sperm motility ↓ Apoptosis ↑ ROS generation Sperm count ↓ Asthenozoospermia Necrozoospermia Oligozoospermia Sperm immaturity↑ |
(14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 34, 35) |
Sperm count ↓ Sperm motility ↓ Abnormal morphology ↑ Oligozoospermia Asthenozoospermia Azoospermia Apoptosis↑ |
(6, 7, 25, 26, 27, 28, 36, 46, 47, 55, 56, 58, 59, 63, 64, 107, 108, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124) |
DNA |
DNA fragmentation Genome damage Disomy X ↑ Disomy Y ↑ Hyperhaploidy |
(14, 15, 23, 35) |
XY18 disomy Disomy of chromosome 13 Disrupted DNA integrity Sex chromosome aneuploidy Deletions in AZF region Sex chromosome disomy DNA damage DNA fragmentation |
(11, 24, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56, 58, 59, 119, 120, 121) |